Preamble

The Negative Impacts, Causes, and Interventions of Gender Stereotypes on Men

Abstract

Gender stereotypes represent pervasive beliefs regarding the characteristics, attributes, and behaviors that men and women possess (descriptive gender stereotypes), as well as what they should or should not be (prescriptive and proscriptive gender stereotypes). While research has historically focused on women, men are also profoundly affected by these constructs. The negative impacts on men include the impairment of verbal and emotional expression, reduced participation in healthcare, early childhood education, and domestic spheres, the neglect of physical and mental health, and the reinforcement of hyper-competitive masculine cultures.

According to the integrated process model of stereotype threat, descriptive gender stereotypes primarily exert negative effects on men by depleting working memory. Conversely, based on social role theory and the status incongruity hypothesis, normative (prescriptive and proscriptive) gender stereotypes negatively impact men through the violation of gender and status roles. Intervention strategies can target the process itself—by providing positive role models, leveraging multiple social identities, and strengthening self-affirmation—or address the root cause by reshaping gender roles according to social role theory. Future research should focus on utilizing the positive effects of gender stereotypes to buffer their negative impacts, exploring how cultural differences shape these influences, examining the effects of gender stereotypes on male children, and investigating new intervention pathways utilizing artificial intelligence.

1. Introduction

Gender stereotypes are generalized beliefs about the characteristics and behaviors of individuals based on their biological sex. These stereotypes are categorized into descriptive stereotypes, which define how men and women are, and prescriptive or proscriptive stereotypes, which dictate how they should or should not behave. While much of the existing literature focuses on the systemic disadvantages these stereotypes impose on women, a growing body of social psychological research suggests that men also face significant psychological and social costs due to rigid gender expectations.

2. The Negative Impacts of Gender Stereotypes on Men

Gender stereotypes restrict the range of acceptable behaviors for men, leading to several detrimental outcomes:

• Impairment of Verbal and Emotional Expression: Stereotypes characterizing men as inherently stoic or less communicative can undermine their development of verbal skills and emotional intelligence.
• Barriers to Communal Domains: Men face social stigma and internal barriers when entering fields traditionally associated with women, such as healthcare and early childhood education (HEED), as well as in domestic caregiving roles.
• Neglect of Health and Well-being: The pressure to appear "tough" often discourages men from seeking medical help or psychological support, leading to poorer health outcomes.
• Reinforcement of Competitive Culture: Stereotypes emphasizing dominance and strength can foster toxic levels of competition, increasing stress and social isolation.

3. Theoretical Mechanisms of Influence

The negative impact of gender stereotypes on men can be understood through several theoretical frameworks:

3.1 The Integrated Process Model of Stereotype Threat

This model suggests that descriptive stereotypes (e.g., "men are not good at verbal tasks") trigger stereotype threat. When men are placed in situations where they fear confirming these negative stereotypes, the resulting anxiety and self-monitoring deplete working memory resources, thereby hindering their actual performance.

3.2 Role Congruity Theory and the Status Incongruity Hypothesis

Normative stereotypes (prescriptive and proscriptive) function through social sanctions. According to Role Congruity Theory, men experience backlash when their behavior deviates from the traditional male role. Furthermore, the Status Incongruity Hypothesis suggests that because men are traditionally viewed as high-status, engaging in "low-status" communal behaviors is seen as a violation of the social hierarchy, leading to social devaluation and psychological pressure.

4. Intervention Strategies

Interventions to mitigate these negative effects can be categorized into process-oriented and source-oriented approaches:

• Process-Oriented Interventions: These focus on buffering the immediate effects of stereotype threat. Strategies include providing positive role models who defy traditional stereotypes, encouraging men to embrace multiple social identities (e.g., "father" and "professional"), and utilizing self-affirmation techniques to bolster psychological resilience.
• Source-Oriented Interventions: Based on social role theory, these interventions aim to change the root of the problem by shifting societal perceptions of gender roles. This involves structural changes that encourage men's participation in communal roles and domestic labor, gradually evolving the content of gender stereotypes themselves.

5. Future Research Directions

To advance the field, future studies should explore the following areas:
1. Buffering Effects: Investigating how the positive aspects of masculine stereotypes (e.g., agency and leadership) can be leveraged to mitigate the negative impacts of other stereotypes.
2. Cultural Variations: Examining how different cultural contexts and values shape the manifestation and severity of gender stereotypes for men.
3. Developmental Perspectives: Focusing on how gender stereotypes influence male children and the long-term trajectory of their social and cognitive development.
4. Technological Innovations: Exploring the potential of artificial intelligence and digital interventions to provide anonymous, accessible, and effective support for men facing stereotype-related challenges.

关键词

Introduction

Descriptive gender stereotypes, prescriptive and proscriptive gender stereotypes, social role theory, role congruity theory, and the status incongruity hypothesis all provide frameworks for understanding the complex dynamics of gender. As the Chinese proverb from Li Kaixian’s The Sword suggests, "A man does not easily shed tears until his heart is truly broken." Gender stereotypes refer to the shared consensus regarding the attributes of men and women in terms of cognitive abilities, role behaviors, occupational choices, and physical characteristics \cite{Ellemers}. The content of these stereotypes is primarily reflected in two fundamental dimensions: agency and communion \cite{Abele}. Agency is goal-oriented, task-focused, and self-centered, emphasizing assertiveness and competence. In contrast, communion is oriented toward interpersonal relationships, social functions, and others, emphasizing warmth, emotionality, and empathy (including traits such as reliability, trustworthiness, and consideration). Generally, it is believed that men possess higher agency, while women possess higher communion. Gender stereotypes manifest in two distinct forms: descriptive and prescriptive/proscriptive \cite{Koenig2018, Sullivan}.

These forms represent different expressions of gender expectations. Descriptive gender stereotypes involve beliefs about what the characteristics of men and women are. For example, women are often perceived as emotional and romantic, while men are seen as confident and decisive. Prescriptive and proscriptive gender stereotypes, however, define what the characteristics of men and women should and should not be. These norms require women to exhibit communion while prohibiting them from showing agency; conversely, they demand agency from men while forbidding the expression of communion. The aforementioned Chinese saying, "A man does not easily shed tears," exemplifies such a proscription \cite{Moss-Racusin2010, Rudman}. By solidifying normative expectations of gendered traits and behaviors, gender stereotypes restrict individual behavioral choices, self-perception, and aspirational development. This leads to a series of negative impacts at both the intergroup and societal levels. Therefore, it is crucial to explore the manifestations, underlying causes, and potential interventions regarding the negative effects of gender stereotypes.

However, current research in this field faces several limitations. First, because men occupy dominant political and economic positions in many countries, a subtle form of cultural bias known as "masculine defaults" has emerged. This means that traits and behaviors associated with male roles are more likely to be valued, rewarded, or viewed as the standard, normal, or necessary aspects of a given cultural context \cite{CheryanMarkus2020, CheryanMuragishi}. This male advantage has resulted in a research landscape that focuses heavily on the negative impacts of stereotypes on women—particularly their unfair treatment regarding job opportunities, status, and income in male-dominated STEM fields (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics)—while rarely attending to the experiences of men \cite{2021}. Since gender stereotypes target both men and women, they can also hinder men from entering female-dominated HEED fields (healthcare, early education, and domestic roles) and exert negative influences on them \cite{BareketFiske, CroftEareckson, Heilman}. Exploring this direction is essential for a comprehensive understanding of the negative impacts of gender stereotypes. Previous research on the negative effects of stereotypes on men has focused primarily on prescriptive and proscriptive norms, with few studies integrating descriptive stereotypes \cite{BareketFiske, CroftRossum}. According to role congruity theory, society reinforces descriptive stereotypes and maintains normative expectations by rewarding gender-congruent behavior and punishing deviations \cite{DiekmanGoodfriend, Renstr}. While descriptive and prescriptive/proscriptive stereotypes are often considered consistent, this suggests that the negative impact on men involves both the pressure of what they "should" be and the assumptions of what they "are."

Although these two forms of gender stereotypes are linked, the internal processes through which they trigger negative effects differ \cite{Manzi}. The negative impact of prescriptive and proscriptive stereotypes on men is primarily manifested in the devaluation and punishment of those who violate gender norms. When men exhibit communal traits, they may face social or economic backlash, such as being disliked or facing reduced hiring opportunities—a phenomenon known as the "backlash effect" \cite{Moss-Racusin}. In contrast, descriptive gender stereotypes trigger negative effects through the perceived lack of fit regarding a man's competence in specific roles and occupations. The stereotype that men are less communal than women can hinder men's pursuit of female-dominated fields, manifesting as a gender stereotype threat effect \cite{Spencer}. Therefore, a systematic and comprehensive understanding of the negative impacts of gender stereotypes on men requires examining the synergy between descriptive and prescriptive/proscriptive dimensions. While global efforts to increase female representation in STEM have seen significant success, male representation in HEED fields has remained largely unchanged \cite{CroftRozenberg}. Investigating interventions for these negative effects can help men enter HEED fields and improve their social relationships with women at the individual level, while fostering a low-bias environment and promoting gender equality at the societal level \cite{BareketFiske}. This study aims to systematically explore the negative impacts of descriptive and prescriptive/proscriptive gender stereotypes on men. Specifically, we first categorize these negative impacts; next, we discuss their causes based on theories of stereotype threat and the backlash effect; then, we propose intervention measures from the perspectives of process and source; finally, we suggest future research directions. We hope this study encourages society to avoid underestimating or ignoring the negative consequences of gender stereotypes for men.

1.1 描述性性别刻板印象对男性的消极影响

The negative impact of descriptive gender stereotypes on men is primarily manifested in the stereotype that men possess less communal warmth and affinity than women. This perception often hinders men when pursuing success in female-dominated domains. For instance, research examining the impact of gender stereotypes on the reading abilities of French children found that in a control condition—where a reading test was described as a game—boys significantly outperformed girls. However, in a threat condition where the test was framed as a diagnostic assessment of reading ability, boys performed significantly worse than girls, demonstrating a clear stereotype threat effect. Similar phenomena have been observed in studies from China and Canada \cite{affee2024, Lellan}, suggesting that the negative impact of gender stereotypes on men may possess a degree of cross-cultural consistency. Notably, beyond directly impairing linguistic performance, gender stereotypes may also undermine men's self-concept, intrinsic motivation, and achievement in reading through the mediated influence of parents, teachers, or peers \cite{MuntoniRetelsdorf2019, Muntoni2021, Retelsdorf}. Beyond the linguistic domain, the negative effects of gender stereotypes on men extend to various other female-dominated fields \cite{Bastos}. For example, compared to a control group where no stereotype-related descriptions were presented, boys in a stereotype threat group—who were informed about gendered expectations in dance—exhibited poorer dance performance. Regarding emotional intelligence, substantial evidence suggests that gender stereotypes can impair men's performance in this area as well.

This impairment spans multiple dimensions of emotional intelligence, including the management and utilization of emotions \cite{Thompson, KoenigEagly}. Given that emotional intelligence is significantly correlated with the quality of interpersonal relationships, negotiation skills, and psychological well-being \cite{Mayer}, the negative impact of gender stereotypes on emotional intelligence may lead to a cascade of further adverse consequences in these associated areas.

While descriptive gender stereotypes clearly exert numerous negative influences on men through stereotype threat, it remains unclear whether these effects manifest similarly within organizational work environments. Extensive research has established that gender stereotypes cause a range of negative outcomes for women in organizations, such as increased job burnout, identity disidentification, negative affect, and turnover intentions. Simultaneously, these stereotypes can reduce career aspirations, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, work engagement, job performance, positive affect, and self-efficacy \cite{Hippel}. Given these findings, it is highly probable that men in organizational settings also suffer from the negative impacts of gender stereotypes. Future research should systematically investigate these dynamics to broaden our understanding of the deleterious effects of descriptive gender stereotypes.

1.2 规范性

The Negative Impacts of Proscriptive Gender Stereotypes on Men

The negative impacts of proscriptive gender stereotypes on men are primarily manifested in the restriction of men to the stereotype that they "should demonstrate agency rather than communality." This expectation creates social barriers when men attempt to enter female-dominated fields, which can subsequently impair their physical and mental health and exacerbate a detrimental "masculinity contest culture" within the workplace.

First, these stereotypes lead to the underrepresentation of men in specific fields. Gender stereotypes hinder male representation by reducing their interest in certain domains \cite{Meeussen2015}. Research examining the interests of male high school students in masculine versus feminine university majors found that their interest in feminine majors was significantly lower than in masculine ones. Similarly, when investigating job seekers' interests in gendered occupations, it was found that male applicants showed significantly less interest in a profession when it was framed as having feminine characteristics compared to masculine ones \cite{Rozenberg}. Studies directly assessing adolescents' gender-stereotyped attitudes toward various occupations found that these attitudes significantly predict their level of interest; specifically, boys exhibit lower interest in fields associated with feminine stereotypes. Notably, research also indicates that boys' gender-stereotyped attitudes toward occupations are influenced by their mothers' stereotypes and their fathers' socialization values. This intergenerational transmission of gender stereotypes suggests that the earlier interventions are implemented to mitigate the negative effects of these stereotypes on men, the more effective they are likely to be.

Second, these stereotypes prevent men from prioritizing their physical and mental health. Regarding physical health, because unhealthy behaviors—such as smoking, alcohol consumption, and overeating—are often viewed as markers of masculinity, men may engage in these behaviors to prove their manhood, thereby negatively impacting their physiological well-being \cite{Vandello}. For instance, traditional gender stereotypes encourage men to adopt risky behaviors as a means of identity validation.

Furthermore, these norms encourage the suppression of emotional expression and help-seeking behavior \cite{PrenticeCarranza}. Consequently, men who tend to base their self-worth on traditional gender stereotypes are more likely to avoid medical services \cite{HimmelsteinSanchez}. Because risk-taking is often used to maintain masculine status, men who feel they fail to meet gender-stereotypical norms may exhibit more pronounced risky behaviors, such as aggression toward others, risky financial decision-making, and dangerous sexual behavior \cite{Accardi}. Cross-cultural research has found that the more precarious a man perceives his masculinity to be, the more likely he is to engage in high-risk health behaviors, such as exposure to toxic substances. In countries that place a higher emphasis on traditional masculinity, the average life expectancy for men is significantly shorter \cite{Vandello}.

Regarding mental health, gender-stereotypical norms—such as maintaining emotional distance from others—reduce men's willingness to seek psychological help \cite{Rossum}, which in turn negatively affects their mental well-being. For example, research has found that traditional conceptions of masculinity exacerbate psychological sub-health among men \cite{LuQin} and can even lead to higher levels of suicidal ideation \cite{Joyce}.

Finally, these stereotypes exacerbate "masculinity contest culture" in the workplace. This culture refers to an organizational environment that requires employees, regardless of gender, to prove they conform to masculine work ideals—such as avoiding displays of weakness, refusing to seek support, demonstrating strength and resilience, prioritizing work above all else, and exhibiting intense competitiveness \cite{Berdahl}. This highly restrictive and competitive work culture reflects the core of male gender-stereotypical norms. Numerous studies show that gender stereotypes negatively impact men's professional lives through this masculinity contest culture. For instance, highly masculine occupational stereotypes, such as those associated with the military, not only deter women but also create a sense of exclusion among men who feel they do not fit that image. Men who apply for internal promotions and are described as advocating for the team's interests rather than their own are often perceived as violating the masculinity contest culture. Compared to women in similar situations, these men are evaluated as lacking agency and are more likely to face social and professional backlash. Furthermore, masculinity contest culture can intensify "imposter feelings," reduce a sense of belonging \cite{Cech}, increase turnover intentions \cite{WorkmanStark}, and lead to work-life imbalance \cite{Berdahl}.

In summary, compared to descriptive gender stereotypes, normative and proscriptive gender stereotypes define what characteristics men should possess or how they should behave. These norms not only result in social and economic disadvantages and negative impacts on physical and mental health but also further hinder the creation of a more equal and harmonious environment.

2.1 描述性性别刻板印象对男性产生消极影响的原因

The Integrated Process Model of Stereotype Threat Effects

The integrated process model of stereotype threat effects posits that stereotype threat is a situational predicament in which cues related to stereotypes trigger a series of negative evaluations and emotions in an individual. These responses, in turn, induce physiological stress reactions, leading the individual to monitor their own performance and attempt to suppress these negative thoughts and emotions. This process ultimately exerts a negative impact on psychological and behavioral outcomes by depleting the individual's working memory and other executive resources.

According to this model, the depletion of working memory is a critical factor in explaining the negative impact of descriptive gender stereotypes on men. For instance, research examining the relationship between stereotype threat and men's verbal performance has found that working memory serves as a mediating variable. Specifically, the more stereotype threat men experience, the lower their working memory capacity becomes, which subsequently leads to diminished verbal performance \cite{Krejtz, 2020b}.

The psychological mechanisms through which stereotype threat—triggered by descriptive gender stereotypes—exerts its negative influence are multifaceted and complex, extending beyond the depletion of working memory. These effects operate through multiple pathways involving affect, cognition, and motivation. Regarding subjective mechanisms, factors such as anxiety, individuation tendencies, evaluation apprehension, explicit stereotype endorsement, and self-efficacy are involved. Cognitive mechanisms include cognitive load, thought suppression, mind-wandering, negative thoughts, cognitive appraisal, and implicit stereotype endorsement. Motivational mechanisms encompass effort, motivation, self-handicapping, vigilance, and achievement goals \cite{Pennington}. Given that these internal mechanisms remain a subject of ongoing debate and that existing research has primarily focused on female participants, further investigation is required to determine whether these same factors account for the negative impact of descriptive gender stereotypes on men.

2.2 规范性

Reasons Why Proscriptive Gender Stereotypes Negatively Impact Men: Gender Role Violation and Social Role Theory

Social role theory \cite{Eagly_Koenig} posits that observations of social category members performing specific social roles shape stereotypes about those members. Because women primarily occupy domestic caregiving roles, they are stereotypically perceived as communal; conversely, because men primarily serve as breadwinners, they are stereotypically perceived as agentic \cite{Froehlich_2020}. Once formed, these stereotypes establish gendered expectations for individuals entering different fields: communal stereotypes expect women to pursue communal domains, while agentic stereotypes expect men to pursue agentic domains. Role congruity theory extends social role theory by proposing that when an individual’s behavior violates the stereotypes associated with their social category, they may incur social or economic penalties \cite{Eagly_Karau}. Consequently, when men engage in behaviors that contradict their gender roles (e.g., helping others), they are more susceptible to the negative effects of gender stereotypes \cite{Moss-Racusin}.

For instance, research on social punishment has found that men in childcare professions face prejudice due to the perceived incongruity between gender stereotypes and the role requirements of their work \cite{Haines}. Compared to women in childcare, men in the same field find it more difficult to gain positive recognition for traits such as morality and competence. Regarding economic penalties, studies exploring how interviewers perceive gender role incongruity in male job applicants have found that, compared to typical male candidates, gender-incongruent men are perceived as violating gender norms and are viewed as less likable, ultimately leading to a lower likelihood of being hired.

However, while the aforementioned research indicates that men are negatively impacted by gender role violations \cite{Moss-Racusin}, other studies suggest that communal behaviors in men do not always result in social punishment \cite{Kozlowski_Power}. This suggests that using gender role violation as the sole explanation for the negative impact of proscriptive gender stereotypes on men may have limitations. Some researchers have proposed the explanatory role of status role violations. According to the status incongruity hypothesis, perceivers punish counter-stereotypical behavior to maintain existing social hierarchies. Specifically in the gender domain, because there is a general tendency to maintain the current gender hierarchy—where men’s social status is typically perceived as higher than women’s—men who exhibit "low-status" behaviors or women who exhibit "high-status" behaviors may face penalties \cite{Moss-Racusin_2010}.

Notably, unlike agency, which is consistently associated with high status, communality is not always viewed as low-status; it is sometimes perceived as status-neutral \cite{Eareckson_Heilman}. Therefore, when men exhibit communal behaviors that are unrelated to low status, they may not experience negative stereotypical effects. Conversely, when men engage in low-status behaviors—specifically those interpreted as "weakness"—they tend to receive negative evaluations \cite{Rosette}. Recent research by Iacoviello provides direct evidence for status role violation as an explanatory mechanism. Their study found that individuals who favor maintaining the gender hierarchy (i.e., those who strongly endorse traditional masculinity beliefs) reacted more negatively to men who violated traditional norms—such as male nurses or stay-at-home fathers—when the gender hierarchy was perceived as threatened. These negative reactions included increased dislike and a lower willingness to hire such men.

While both role congruity theory and the status incongruity hypothesis provide theoretical explanations for the negative impact of proscriptive gender stereotypes on men, their underlying mechanisms differ. The former posits that men are penalized for deviating from expected social roles (gender role violation), while the latter suggests they are penalized for behavior that is inconsistent with their expected social status (status role violation).

Which theory offers superior explanatory power? As previously noted, the status incongruity hypothesis can partially explain why communal behaviors in men do not always trigger negative stereotypical reactions, suggesting it may be the more robust framework. However, other research has found that seeking help can reduce a leader's perceived competence. According to research by Rosette, this phenomenon can be explained through two lenses: leader typicality (where help-seeking violates role expectations for male leaders, based on role congruity theory) and leader weakness (where help-seeking is viewed as a low-status behavior inappropriate for men, based on the status incongruity hypothesis). In their study, leader typicality served as a significant mediator, whereas leader weakness did not. This implies that, in certain contexts, role congruity theory may better explain the negative impact of proscriptive stereotypes on men than the status incongruity hypothesis. Given the scarcity of research directly comparing these two theories, further investigation is required to determine which holds greater explanatory power.

3 如何干预性别刻板印象对男性的消极影响

The negative impacts of gender stereotypes on men often fly under the radar, failing to receive adequate attention in both social discourse and policy formulation \cite{}. Consequently, exploring effective methods to intervene in these negative effects has become particularly crucial. This study aims to adopt a dual perspective—examining both process mechanisms and root causes—to systematically elaborate on strategies that can simultaneously intervene in the negative impacts of descriptive and prescriptive gender stereotypes on men.

3.1 在过程中干预性别刻板印象对男性的消极影响

Providing Positive Role Models

According to social comparison theory, individuals are motivated to evaluate their abilities through objective standards or by comparing themselves with others. Upward social comparison helps eliminate group-related stigma and prevents evaluation-induced stress. Providing positive in-group role models helps break negative stereotypes about stigmatized groups and changes public perceptions of those groups \cite{Cortland, Kinias}. The negative impact of descriptive gender stereotypes on men in areas such as linguistic ability can be mitigated by providing examples of outstanding male role models in those fields, thereby enhancing self-identification and buffering against the negative effects of gender stereotypes. According to the influence hypothesis, when individuals define themselves through a shared social identity, a stronger identification with that identity makes them more susceptible to mutual influence \cite{Rossum}. Therefore, considering that the expectations and norms of prescriptive and proscriptive gender stereotypes for men are also collectively constructed by group members (where some members lead and others follow), contact with excellent male role models in specific fields may facilitate a shift in group norms \cite{Croft}, thereby alleviating the impact of gender stereotypes.

The negative impact on men can also be addressed through developmental influences; for instance, having a male role model who actively participated in domestic labor during one's upbringing is associated with holding fewer "zero-sum gender beliefs"—the perception that progress in women's rights comes at the expense of men's rights. In the field of men's mental health, not only men themselves but also the significant others around them generally believe that positive male role models hold significant potential for reshaping healthy and diverse social norms for masculinity. Furthermore, utilizing multiple social identities can be an effective strategy. According to social identity theory, an individual's self-enhancement motivation prompts them to shift toward another non-threatened identity when multiple social identities are activated \cite{Roccas, Brewer}. This implies that activating an individual's multiple identities can effectively prevent them from being defined solely by a single stigmatized identity. For example, research has found that while gender stereotypes can reduce women's mathematical performance, activating their identity as "science students" can actually improve it. Similarly, to reduce the negative impact of descriptive gender stereotypes on men in fields like linguistics, interventions could involve activating other positive social identities, such as their identity as "liberal arts students." According to the multiple identities thesis, possessing multiple compatible, positive, and important group identities yields greater positive effects \cite{Brewer}. Drawing support and resources from numerous positive social identities is associated with higher levels of well-being and organizational equality \cite{Manzi, 2024, Roberts, Caza}. Men may be able to use these multiple positive social identities—which may carry more positive expectations and norms—to reduce the behavioral constraints imposed by gender stereotypes on their male identity, thereby alleviating potential negative impacts. It is worth noting, however, that current evidence for the effectiveness of this intervention primarily stems from research on the negative effects of gender stereotypes on women; whether it can effectively intervene in the negative impacts experienced by men remains to be verified by future research.

Strengthening Self-Affirmation

According to self-affirmation theory, when individuals feel that their self-integrity is threatened, they can restore it by affirming other important aspects of self-worth, such as social relationships or core skills. This integrity stems from a fundamental self-perception of being overall good, moral, and capable of effectively responding to challenges and producing positive impacts in important adaptive and moral domains of life \cite{Sherman}. When facing the negative effects of descriptive gender stereotypes, self-affirmation reminds individuals of psychosocial resources outside the negative context, broadening their perspective when evaluating the threatening situation \cite{Reeves, 2023, Sherman}. This weakens the negative impact the individual experiences in that context. Huang Liangjie et al. found that self-affirmation can effectively weaken the gender stereotypes held by men, thereby increasing their interest and choices in specific tasks. Research has also shown that self-affirmation can effectively resist the negative impact of gender stereotypes on men's cognitive functions. Regarding the negative effects of prescriptive and proscriptive gender stereotypes, self-affirmation can achieve intervention effects by buffering threats to masculinity. Studies have found that when faced with threats to masculinity, self-affirmation interventions can reduce the occurrence of certain behaviors.

Specifically, self-affirmation intervention can reduce the following two types of behaviors: first, it decreases the compensatory aggressive behavior exhibited by high-masculinity men in response to threats \cite{Fowler, Geers}; second, it alleviates negative reactions toward gay men who exhibit perceived feminine traits. Furthermore, research has found that self-affirmation can mitigate the negative impact of threat-induced feelings—often triggered by psychological treatment—on individuals' decisions regarding health screenings and seeking health information. In other words, utilizing self-affirmation may help men become more courageous in seeking help, including psychological assistance, thereby alleviating the physical and mental health problems indirectly caused by gender stereotypes.

3.2 从源头处干预性别刻板印象对男性的消极影响

While the aforementioned interventions can buffer the negative impacts of both descriptive and normative gender stereotypes, their effects are often heterogeneous and short-lived \cite{2021, Rossum}. The underlying reason is that these measures primarily aim to intervene in the process by which gender stereotypes negatively affect men, rather than addressing the problem at its source. As previously noted, Social Role Theory posits that people's perceptions of what men and women "are" and "should or should not be" are primarily formed based on observations of the roles they play in daily life \cite{Eagly, Koenig}. Previous process-based interventions have only attempted to mitigate the negative consequences of gender stereotypes without uprooting the stereotypes themselves. This approach often leads to a recurrence of negative impacts. Therefore, intervening at the source by changing gender roles may offer a more effective and lasting solution to the negative effects of stereotypes on men.

Compared to individuals who read about gender-neutral employment trends, those who read about the evolving social roles of fathers—such as becoming more involved in childcare—shifted their perceptions of men, viewing them as possessing higher levels of communion \cite{Banchefsky}. A large-scale study analyzing over 1 million data points regarding implicit and explicit gender stereotypes in the United States between 2007 and 2018 found that traditional gender stereotypes are significantly weakening. This change reflects the shift in gender roles during these years, characterized by women entering traditionally male domains and men entering traditionally female domains \cite{Charlesworth, Banaji}. Over time, changes in gender roles gradually weaken traditional gender stereotypes, thereby reducing or even eliminating their negative impacts on both men and women. It is noteworthy, however, that while evidence of shifting gender stereotypes is primarily linked to contemporaneous changes in gender roles, the increase of men in traditionally female domains has significantly lagged behind the substantial advancement of women in traditionally male domains \cite{Croft}. Consequently, changing male gender roles is a matter of urgency. Through government intervention at the educational policy level, gender equality education can be integrated into primary and secondary school curricula to reduce stereotypical content. Universities can also establish scholarship programs to encourage men to enter female-dominated fields such as the humanities and social sciences. At the level of public communication and social advocacy, television, the internet, and social media can be utilized to broadcast public service announcements that break gender stereotypes and promote successful male role models in communal fields. Regarding institutional and evaluation policies, corresponding measures can be formulated to encourage the creation of a more equitable market environment to attract more men.

In conclusion, by transforming the inherent social roles played by men, traditional gender stereotypes can be weakened or even eliminated. This approach ultimately serves to break the vicious cycle between stereotypes and social roles.

3.3 小结

Growing evidence suggests that while gender stereotypes regarding women are shifting—specifically with the perception that women are increasing in agency—there remains significant controversy over whether gender stereotypes regarding men are undergoing similar changes. While some argue that men may be increasing in communal traits, others suggest that stereotypes of men are more stable. This stability implies that the negative impacts of gender stereotypes on men may be more enduring and that interventions to address them will be more challenging. Effective intervention requires not only mitigating the negative effects of gender stereotypes during social processes but also addressing them at their source.

Beyond shared interventions that address the negative impacts of both descriptive and prescriptive/proscriptive gender stereotypes, unique methods exist for each type. Regarding descriptive gender stereotypes, researchers suggest blurring the group boundaries between men and women and emphasizing shared characteristics between the two groups to change negative stereotypical beliefs held about men \cite{}. For prescriptive and proscriptive gender stereotypes, interventions can focus on communicating the importance of cultivating communal traits in men—such as how communion facilitates interpersonal relationships—thereby reducing rigid adherence to gender-stereotypical norms \cite{Rossum}. Therefore, future efforts to intervene in the negative effects of gender stereotypes on men must recognize both common intervention methods and specific measures tailored to each type of stereotype to ensure effectiveness.

It is also important to note that while the aforementioned interventions can alleviate the negative impacts of gender stereotypes on men to some extent, they are largely gender-neutral. There is a scarcity of intervention strategies specifically designed for men. Future research should focus more on the specific negative consequences that gender stereotypes impose on men to develop more gender-targeted strategies. For example, since gender stereotypes may negatively affect men's work by exacerbating a "masculine contest culture," and since problem-focused coping—a regulatory process aimed at addressing problems and changing distressing interactions between the individual and the environment—can effectively intervene in turnover intentions triggered by such cultures \cite{Zheng}, organizations could potentially weaken the negative impact of gender stereotypes by training men in problem-focused coping strategies.

4.1 探讨如何利用性别刻板印象对男性的积极作用来缓冲其消极影响

Although this study focuses on the negative impacts of gender stereotypes on men, previous research suggests that these effects can sometimes be positive. Regarding descriptive gender stereotypes, some studies have found that the stereotype suggesting men's linguistic abilities are inferior to women's does not necessarily hinder men's performance; instead, it can actually have a facilitative effect \cite{Hausmann}.

Similar positive effects have been observed regarding the impact of gender stereotypes on men in professional contexts. For instance, it is a common perception that women should pursue fields in the humanities and social sciences, which are associated with "warmth," while men should pursue STEM fields, which are associated with "competence." Consequently, women entering STEM or men entering the humanities may face a "backlash effect" \cite{Heyder, Kortzak}. However, other research has found that men working in education do not necessarily face social penalties; instead, they are often perceived as warmer than men working in physics \cite{Heyder, Kortzak}. Furthermore, when men engage in behaviors that violate traditional gender stereotypes—such as adopting an communal leadership style \cite{schel}, taking on fatherhood roles \cite{Morgenroth}, performing communal tasks \cite{hlamp}, or possessing feminine personality traits \cite{江红艳, Kozlowski, Power}—they do not always face negative evaluations. In fact, they may even receive rewards for these behaviors.

Given that gender stereotypes can exert both negative and positive influences on men, clarifying the relevant moderating variables may allow us to leverage positive effects to buffer against negative ones. For example, research on descriptive gender stereotypes indicates that presenting these stereotypes implicitly may encourage individuals to actively monitor their performance to avoid errors, leading to positive outcomes. Conversely, explicit presentation is more likely to cause distraction and deplete working memory resources, resulting in negative impacts \cite{Stone, McWhinnie}. By shifting the presentation of gender stereotypes from explicit to implicit, it may be possible to trigger positive effects or suppress negative ones. Regarding proscriptive gender stereotypes, studies suggest that when men violate stereotypes in a way that meets "negative expectancy violations" (e.g., appearing weak), they are more likely to be punished. However, when their behavior constitutes a "positive expectancy violation" (e.g., showing care and concern), they may be rewarded \cite{Eareckson, Heilman}. Therefore, by reframing stereotype violations from negative to positive, we can potentially harness the positive functions of these stereotypes to mitigate their adverse effects on men. Future research should explore additional moderating variables that can be manipulated to trigger positive stereotype-related outcomes, thereby buffering, inhibiting, or eliminating the negative impacts of gender stereotypes on men.

4.2 探究文化在性别刻板印象对男性的消极影响中的作用

Although researchers have recently begun to focus on the negative impacts of gender stereotypes on men, such studies have primarily concentrated on Western cultural contexts. There is a dearth of evidence from Eastern cultural backgrounds. The influence of stereotypes on men may vary across cultures, as numerous studies indicate that general beliefs regarding male characteristics, attributes, and behaviors differ significantly between societies (Kosakowska-Berezecka et al., 2024; Valved et al., 2021). In individualistic cultures, stereotypes associating communal traits with women are particularly strong (Cuddy et al., 2015; Kosakowska-Berezecka et al., 2020). This implies that in such cultures, men may experience more severe negative consequences when they exhibit behaviors inconsistent with gender stereotypes. However, it is noteworthy that in Asian cultures, a general concern for avoiding being a burden to others may lead to a lower likelihood of seeking social support. Consequently, men in these cultures may also suffer because they attempt to avoid help-seeking behaviors.

This may lead to more pronounced negative effects of gender stereotypes on their physical and mental health. From different cultural perspectives, the impact of gender stereotypes on men may yield varying outcomes. Therefore, future research needs to conduct refined explorations in this field to reveal the complex role that culture plays in these dynamics.

Investigating the impact of gender stereotypes on Chinese men is of significant value. China is deeply influenced by Confucian culture, which emphasizes social order and hierarchy, requiring individuals to act according to prescribed social roles. With conservative and traditional values, gender norms are deeply rooted in the Chinese psyche. This suggests that behaviors inconsistent with gender roles violate strict traditional Chinese values and gender expectations, potentially leading to more severe negative consequences when Chinese men deviate from gender-stereotypical norms. For example, in the Chinese entertainment industry, young male celebrities with "feminine" appearances often face criticism from society and the media. However, as society develops, men who exhibit gender-nonconforming behaviors have gradually entered the public eye. According to Social Role Theory, as people observe an increasing number of men engaging in gender-inconsistent behaviors, traditional gender stereotypes may gradually weaken, thereby reducing their negative impact on men. This implies that the punishment faced by contemporary Chinese men for violating gender stereotypes might not be as severe as previously assumed. This complex uncertainty reminds future researchers to pay attention to cultural contexts—such as modern China—that are both deeply influenced by traditional, rigorous cultural values and increasingly receptive to modern cultural values, to determine the actual effects of gender stereotypes on men.

Beyond examining the negative psychological and behavioral impacts of gender stereotypes on Chinese men from a psychological perspective, it is necessary to incorporate other disciplines to discuss this issue through a multidisciplinary lens. From a demographic perspective, particular attention should be paid to how social factors, including gender stereotype norms, negatively affect the life expectancy of Chinese men. Research analyzing census data since the founding of the People's Republic of China has found that male mortality rates are significantly higher than female mortality rates across all age groups. Aside from biological factors, traditional gender stereotype norms often cause men's health needs to be ignored, leading to a lower life expectancy than women. From a communications perspective, research should focus on the negative impact of norms on the vulnerable situations of men on social media. On platforms where male vulnerability is discussed—such as cases of domestic violence against husbands—public perceptions often misalign with reality, as men are typically viewed solely as perpetrators. This cognitive bias causes the hardships faced by men in such situations to be underestimated or even ignored by the public. From a sociological perspective, one must recognize that traditional Chinese culture advocates for a gendered division of labor ("men outside, women inside"). This means that when men engage in roles traditionally held by women, they may face social and economic penalties. However, it is also important to note that under the impact of individualization, traditional gender divisions are being repeatedly challenged. The evolution of family concepts and living practices demonstrates complexity in the struggle between tradition and modernity, suggesting that the negative impact of gender stereotypes on Chinese men may also be multifaceted. Future research should integrate these multidisciplinary perspectives within the Chinese cultural context to examine the negative effects of gender stereotypes on men.

It is also crucial to examine the impact of gender stereotypes on boys. While current evidence suggests that gender stereotypes have negative impacts on adult men, particularly regarding social and economic penalties (Racusin & Johnson, 2016; Rudman et al., 2012), much less is known about their impact on boys. Although it is increasingly socially acceptable for girls to violate gender norms (e.g., wearing boys' clothing), there is no corresponding level of acceptance for boys who engage in typically feminine behaviors. This suggests that the negative impact of gender stereotypes may be more severe for boys than for girls. Sullivan et al. (2023), in examining whether preschool children who violate gender stereotypes face resistance from adults, found that such children were less liked by adults than those who conformed to stereotypes. More importantly, the negative impact was stronger for boys than for girls. This indicates that the negative influence of gender stereotypes is not limited to adults but also extends to children, especially boys. However, recent research by Brenner et al. (2022) found that children who violate gender stereotypes in the classroom generally receive relatively positive evaluations from adults, a trend that often persists into early adulthood. This suggests that children might be less susceptible to the negative effects of gender stereotypes than adults. Notably, although Brenner et al. (2022) did not observe significant negative effects for children overall, they did find that boys who violated gender stereotypes received lower ratings for likability and appropriateness compared to girls. Given the scarcity of research in this area, there is an urgent need for more in-depth studies to clarify the reasons for these conflicting findings. Some studies have found that political conservatism, as opposed to political liberalism, is associated with more pronounced gender stereotypes and restrictive gender concepts (Prusaczyk & Hodson, 2020; Stern et al., 2017). Different individual identities, such as political identity, may lead to different reactions toward children who violate gender stereotypes. Previous research has primarily focused on adult perspectives; however, it is also necessary to explore how children themselves react to peers who violate gender stereotypes. If negative effects persist, how do they differ from those of adults? These critical questions warrant exploration in future research. Such investigations will not only expand the dimensions of this field from a developmental perspective but may also provide insights for intervening in the negative impacts of gender stereotypes on men at their source.

4.4 探索人工智能在性别刻板印象对男性的消极影响中的干预作用

With the rapid development of artificial intelligence, interaction between humans and AI has become increasingly normalized and relational. This interaction has deeply permeated various aspects of human life, including private, social, and professional spheres. According to intergroup contact theory, intergroup contact is one of the most effective methods for reducing intergroup prejudice \cite{Dovidio}.

Contact refers not only to actual physical interaction but also includes indirect forms of contact. These include imagined contact (mentally simulating positive intergroup interactions), parasocial contact (exposure to information and descriptions regarding outgroup members through media), and computer-mediated virtual contact. Accordingly, contact with AI that challenges gender stereotypes—such as male-gendered medical nursing robots or early childhood education robots—may weaken the tendency for individuals to associate agency exclusively with masculinity. This, in turn, can enhance the belief that men can also be welcomed and perform excellently in these fields. For example, research has found that compared to men who viewed female-gendered nursing robots, those who viewed male-gendered nursing robots were more likely to prefer male caregivers or caregivers of any gender \cite{Moradbakhti}. Exposure to AI that breaks gender stereotypes may reduce the association individuals make between gender roles and their corresponding stereotypical traits. Given that AI is, and will continue to be, an indispensable part of human life, exploring the use of AI to intervene in the negative effects of gender stereotypes on men is of great significance and will become an important topic for future research.

5 结语

Gender stereotypes represent a critical issue within the field of psychology. Their underlying mechanisms, developmental origins, and intervention strategies have remained a consistent focus for both Western and Chinese scholars. Influenced by the prevailing ideologies of fairness and inclusion, Western culture increasingly emphasizes equitable treatment and full participation for all individuals, with particular attention directed toward groups that have been traditionally underrepresented or subjected to prejudice and discrimination due to identity differences.

Driven by these cultural trends, current research in the field of gender stereotypes primarily focuses on women, examining the series of negative impacts they face alongside the associated psychological mechanisms and intervention methods. Conversely, there is a relative dearth of research regarding whether and how men are negatively affected by gender stereotypes. Given this research asymmetry, it is necessary to maintain a cautious perspective on the current state of gender stereotype research, which is predominantly shaped by Western cultural contexts.

While the importance of investigating the negative effects of gender stereotypes on women is undeniable, the potential adverse consequences for men must not be underestimated or ignored. More importantly, Chinese researchers should engage in deep reflection on the complex and vital issue of gender stereotypes within the specific context of Chinese culture. Such research should aim to reveal the negative impacts and mechanisms affecting both men and women, while exploring ways to fundamentally reshape social gender norms. Ultimately, the goal is to enable individuals to autonomously choose their physical practices and behavioral patterns based on their own needs and desires, thereby effectively alleviating or even eliminating the negative effects brought about by gender stereotypes.

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Journal

Adolescent Health, negative effects, causes, interventions stereotypes Descriptive prescriptive/proscriptive Zhen,

( Department of Social Psychology, School of S o ciology , Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China )

Abstract

Gender stereotypes culturally shared beliefs about characteristics, attributes, behaviors women typically (descriptive gender stereotypes) those should should (prescriptive/proscriptive gender stereotypes). women adversely affected these stereotypes, which linked diminished linguistic socioemotional functioning, reduced engagement health care, elementary education, domestic roles, compromised attention their physical psychological well-being, continued reinforcement masculine-contest cultures.

According integrated process model stereotype threat effects, negative effects descriptive gender stereotypes arise primarily through depletion working memory. contrast, congruity theory status incongruity hypothesis posit prescriptive/proscriptive gender stereotypes undermine chiefly framing their behaviors violations gender status roles Interventions target underlying processes providing positive models, emphasizing multiple social identities, fostering self-affirmation.

Additionally, interventions alter gender roles their source consistent social theory.

Future research could examine positive effects gender stereotypes might buffer negative impacts, cultural differences shape these outcomes, gender stereotypes influence boys, novel interventions developed using artificial intelligence.

Keywords

descriptive gender stereotypes, prescriptive/proscriptive gender stereotypes, social theory, congruity theory, status incongruity hypothesis