Preamble

Astronomical Techniques and Instruments, Vol. 2, November 2025, 366–374 Article Open Access An optimization strategy for reliable Antarctic telescope con- trol systems Yun Li , Xiaoyan Li , Shihai Yang , Zhenshuai Yan 1,2,4 , Yanpeng Guo 1,2,4 , Zhuangzhuang 1,2,4 , Cong Pan 1,2,4 , Zhengyang Li 1,2,3 , Bozhong Gu , Michael C. B. Ashley 1 Nanjing Institute of Astronomical Optics Technology Chinese Academy of Sciences Nanjing 210042, China 2 CAS Key Laboratory of Astronomical Optics Technology Nanjing Institute of Astronomical Optics Technology Nanjing 210042, China 3 Polar Research Institute of China Shanghai 200136, China *Correspondence:

INTRODUCTION

For favorable observing conditions, such as good see- ing and low light pollution, telescope sites tend to be located in adverse environments, such as cold, high-alti- tude, and sparsely populated areas. In recent years, the inte- rior of Antarctica has become an important site for astro- nomical research undertaken by various countries. The high- est point of the Antarctic inland ice cap, Dome A (at an ele- vation of 4 096 m), is currently the best astronomical site on Earth in terms of seeing , with observing conditions comparable to those in space.

The extreme environment of Antarctica is a double- edged sword for telescopes. The unique geographic loca- tion of Dome A is an excellent observatory location, with good visibility combined with a 3-month-long polar night observing window. However, the high altitude, ultra-low temperature, ground-blown snow, and long polar night all pose a threat to the stable operation of the telescope over long periods. The entire body of the telescope may be encased in snow during the polar night (see mainly because of ground blowing snow. Accumulated snow will increase the driving load of the telescope and may even cause axis seizure. Simultaneously, it can cover the window and impose an additional burden on the mir- ror heating system.

AST3-2 right ascension (A) and declination (B). Three telescopes are actively operating at Kunlun Sta- tion in Antarctica: the Chinese Small Telescope ARray

4 University of Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100049, China

5 School of Physics

University of New South Wales Sydney 2052, Australia © 2025 Editorial Office of Astronomical Techniques and Instruments, Yunnan Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences. This is an open access article under the CC BY 4.0 license ( Citation: Li, Y., Li, X. Y., Yang, S. H., et al. 2025. An optimization strategy for reliable Antarctic telescope control systems.

Astronomical Techniques and Instruments (6): 366−374.

Abstract

Antarctic telescopes, especially those located at Dome A, face significant reliability challenges owing to the extremely harsh working environment, among which the reliability of the control system is critical in ensuring stable operation. This paper describes various factors affecting the reliability of Antarctic telescopes, as well as the challenges of reliability improvement. Combined with the development of Antarctic telescopes and the experience of Antarctic scientific expeditions, we introduce, in detail, the optimization strategy for reliability enhancement, including the hardware layer, software layer, modular design to facilitate maintenance, and reliability management. The current status of the Antarctic Survey Telescope (AST3) is also briefly introduced, along with future development plans. We aim to provide ideas for the reliability design of Antarctic telescopes and provide technical support for the development of future Antarctic telescopes.

Keywords

Antarctic telescope; Control system; Reliability; Optimization strategy

(CSTAR) , Antarctica Survey Telescope (AST3) , and near-infrared optical telescope developed by Nanjing Institute of Astronomical Optics & Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (NIAOT). The China Antarctic Obser- vatory plans to build a 2.5-m large-aperture optical/infrared telescope, the Kunlun Dark Universe Survey Telescope (KDUST) , and the 5 m Dome A Terahertz Explorer (DATE5) at Kunlun Station, also proposing a long- term plan for other facilities including 6–8-m optical/infrared telescopes and 15-m terahertz telescopes as initial projects in a subsequent construction program . The existing opti- cal telescopes at Dome A are shown in . In the upper left of the is AST3-1 (operating from 2012 to 2017), the first telescope in the Dome A that can be pointed and tracked. In the upper right is CSTAR (operat- ing from 2007 to 2012), which took the first historic step in Chinese astronomical exploration in Antarctica. In the lower left is Near-infrared Telescope (operating since 2024), which effectively fills the observational gap in the 1.1–1.4-µm band at Dome A. In the lower right is AST3- 2 (operating since 2015), the largest currently operating optical telescope in Antarctica. AST3 is a series of antarc- tic survey telescopes, with AST3-1 being the first and AST3-2 being the second.

AST3-1 CSTAR AST3-2 Near-infrared telescope Antarctica. AST3-1, the first optical telescope in Antarctica with automatic pointing and tracking function. CSTAR, the first independently developed Chinese Antarctic optical telescope. The Near-infrared Telescope, filling the observ- ational wavelength gap of 1.1−1.4 µm, installed in 2024. AST3- 2, the largest aperture optical telescope operating at Dome A in Antarctica, installed in 2014.

Other Antarctic telescopes include the Italian 80-cm telescope International Robotic Antarctic Infrared Tele- scope-International Telescope “Maffei” (IRAIT-ITM) [ 10 ] and the American 10-m South Pole Telescope (SPT) [ 11 ] operating at radio frequencies. In addition, France and Italy have proposed the Kiloparsec Explorer for Optical Planet Search (KEOPS) [ 12 ] ; Spain, the United Kingdom and Canada have proposed the Permanent All Sky Sur-

vey (PASS) at Dome C (a prominent ice dome located inland in Antarctica); Australia and other countries have proposed the Pathfinder for an International Large Opti- cal Telescope (PILOT) , a 2.4-m optical infrared tele- scope; the United States and Australia have proposed the Large Antarctic Plateau Clear-Aperture Telescope (LAP- , an 8.4-m polarized optical infrared telescope to be constructed on Dome C.

An Antarctic telescope faces several significant chal- lenges. The Antarctic continent exhibits significantly lower temperatures than any other region on Earth, because of the low solar elevation angle during daytime, and the three-month polar night. This is compounded by constant ice and snow cover, with a high reflectivity of solar radiation, causing less heat to be absorbed by the ground. This causes annual mean temperatures in the range of −30°C to −25°C . The lowest recorded terres- trial surface air temperature of −89.2°C was measured at the Russian Vostok Station The average surface altitude on the continent of Antarc- tica is 2 350 m. Geographically, the central region of Anta- rctica has a high surface elevation, with surrounding reg- ions being lower. Coupled with extreme low temperatures, this means that many locations are prone to the forma- tion of descending winds, with speeds potentially reaching up to hundreds of meters per second. Strong gusts of wind can carry a large number of snow particles, causing ground- blown snow, which poses a serious threat to equipment.

The extreme environmental conditions pose a great challenge to human activities in Antarctica. Consequently, facilities located in inland Antarctica operate without requir- ing direct human attendance. The Chinese National Antarc- tic Research Expedition (CHINARE) team arrives at Dome A only once a year, with limited time to perform any requir- ed tasks, so the equipment maintenance cycle is long.

Energy supply at Dome A has always been a signifi- cant issue, and workable solutions are urgently needed.

There is no solar energy supply during polar night at Kun- lun Station, and the placement of high-power energy stor- age devices in extreme environments is inefficient and costly. Fuel engines and wind turbines face significant relia- bility challenges and provide limited power output.

Antarctic communications are currently provided by low-bandwidth and high-cost satellite infrastructure. Low- orbit Iridium satellites provide excellent coverage for Irid- ium connectivity in the polar regions, with a maximum data transfer rate of 128 Kbps (i.e., up to 16 KB s −1 ).

This is a difficult situation for Antarctic telescopes at Kun- lun Station, which need to interact remotely under such communication conditions.

Continued, long-term reliance on Iridium satellites for Dome A communications can no longer meet the timeli- ness requirements of remote telescope operations. Establish- ing coverage through an existing Chinese satellite constella- tion may present an optimal solution, while international cooperation could also be considered.

The drive control system of a telescope guarantees

smooth operation during astronomical observations, and its reliability directly affects whether an observation can be carried out, as well as the efficiency and quality attain- able. A stable and reliable drive control system not only ensures the precision of telescope pointing and tracking, but also effectively reduces the probability of telescope fail- ure. The key to improving the operational efficiency of the telescope is to propose mechanisms to improve the relia- bility of the drive control system for different scenarios.

Here, we discuss factors affecting the reliability of the control system of Antarctic telescopes, aiming to pro- vide optimal reliability for Antarctic telescopes, enrich the research of Antarctic astronomical techniques and meth- ods, and guide the development of Antarctic astronomy.

This can culminate in solutions and technical guidance for the development and operation of telescopes in extreme environments.

RELIABILITY CHALLENGES FOR ANTARCTIC TELESCOPES

Kunlun Station in Antarctica has excellent astronomi- cal observation conditions, but the harsh local environ- ment places stringent requirements on the reliability of tele- scope control systems. The biggest concerns include the ultra-low temperature and ground blowing snow, causing low-temperature operating conditions for the telescope drive motors and other electrical parts. Temperature changes can cause deformation of mechanical structures, and pervasive snow drifts can cause snow to enter the drive mechanism, blocking gears, freezing the mechanism, and clinging to the mirror surface, requiring different con- siderations to conventional ground-based telescopes.

Electrical System Compared with the wintering stations that are crewed all year round (such as Zhongshan Station and Great Wall Station), Kunlun Station is uncrewed, and has higher requirements for the stability of the Electrical system.

Long-term automated operation is required, coupled with a harsher operating environment at lower temperatures and higher altitude. The power supply at crewed stations is stable, because any issues can be promptly detected and repaired by staff on duty.

As critical components of the electrical system, power supply and communication face severe challenges in Antarctica’s extreme environment. The Plateau Observa- tory for Dome A (PLATO-A), currently the primary obser- vation support platform at Dome A, provides essential power and communication support for telescope opera- tions. During polar day, energy is supplied by solar pan- els, while fuel-powered generators provide power during polar night. Communication is via Iridium satellites.

PLATO-A is broadly composed of an engine module, solar panel arrays, and an instrument module (as shown ). The engine module and solar panels provide

energy for telescope operations during polar night and day respectively, while the instrument module maintains a thermally regulated environment for telescope control cabi- nets and enables satellite communications.

Instrument module Solar panel Engine module Station.

2.2 . Mechanical Structure

The mechanical structure of an astronomical tele- scope serves as the operational foundation for a precision motion system that integrates interdependent optical, mechanical, and electrical subsystems. The electrical sys- tem provides operational support for the optical system which ultimately determines overall performance. In the unique operating environment of Antarctica, mechanical structures must meet higher reliability requirements, impos- ing stricter standards on material selection, design, manufac- turing, and assembly.

A mechanical structure undergoes deformation as tem- peratures vary, and any given material will have a dis- tinct coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), with more pro- nounced structural deformation occurring in materials pos- sessing higher CTEs. An Antarctic telescope operates in an environment with annual temperature variation span- ning a range of up to 50°C. Such mechanical deforma- tions may alter the preload force in moving component assemblies, consequently inducing variations in driving torque and impairing drive performance. Additionally, ther- mal deformation of the mirror support structure causes posi- tional shifts of optical elements with temperature fluctua- tions, compromising optical alignment and ultimately degrading image quality.

Taking the AST3 as an example, the key mechanical components of the telescope are constructed from materi- als with low CTEs, while the structural design has been optimized to better adapt to the Antarctic environment.

Snow and frost ingress into the gear mechanism, leading to blockage, has been identified as a common issue in Antarctic telescopes and a primary cause of tracking fail- ure during observations. To address this, the mechanical design of AST3-3 was further improved by implementing a fully enclosed gearbox (shown in ), which has effec- tively resolved this problem.

AST3-3. STRATEGIES FOR RELIABILITY OP TIMIZATION Hardware Layer Optimization Antarctic telescopes work in an open-air environment, meaning that motors, encoders, reading heads, and other related electrical accessories inevitably suffer from low tem- peratures, wind, and snow, so hardware optimization is indispensable. In the case of the AST3, its spindle con- trol program is a dual-motor gear backlash elimination, that is, the equinoctial axes are equipped with two drives and two servo motors, providing a redundancy backup while also eliminating gear backlash. The gear drive design solution also minimizes the energy consumption of the motors. This solution has been successfully applied to the AST3-2 and AST3-3 telescopes, with favorable results. The AST3 spindle dual motor design principle is shown in RA encoder position

Universal motion and automation controller

Motor1 RA axis Motor2 Motor1 DEC axis Servo Motor2 drive 2 DEC encoder position An encoder is a key component for a telescope to achieve accurate closed-loop control, and the grating hub and reading head work at ambient temperature, so the read- ing head needs to be equipped with a temperature con- trol device. Two reading heads are equipped for each axis of AST3-2, and four for each axis of AST3-3, which plays the role of redundancy. Each reading head is fitted with a platinum resistance temperature sensor, and the aver- age value of the sensor is taken. When the temperature value is less than the lower limit of the set value, the pro- grammable power supply is turned on and heating begins; when the temperature is greater than the upper limit of the set temperature value, the programmable power sup- ply is turned off and heating stops. The AST3-2 reading head and the heating unit are shown in Temperature sensor and heater Reading head In addition, the window snow removal system is also an important part of the telescope, ensuring unobscured observation. Snow can easily block the window of the tele- scope, causing it to be “blinded”. The window design, cre- ated using Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) conductive film pro- vides a solution for electric defrosting. The window heat- ing of AST3-2 adopts a special multi-terminal saturated con- tact design scheme, with a spring flexible support struc- ture behind each terminal. This design ensures good con- tact between the terminals and electrodes, and avoids hard contact problems caused by deformation. The conductive electrodes are supplied with a three-way independent power supply, ensuring the redundancy of the power sup- ply to the conductive film and improving reliability. The telescope window and mirror heating electrode are shown Telescope window Wiring terminal Sprung Electrodes Telescope temperature maintenance can be achieved using encoder read-head heating and window defrosting, using the closed loop formed by the heating pad or heat- ing film and the temperature sensor to achieve tempera- ture regulation. At Dome A, where energy is scarce, high- power temperature maintenance methods are not feasible.

Therefore, most telescope components, such as mechani- cal structures, motors, and cables, are custom-designed for extreme low-temperature operation.

Software Layer Optimization Antarctic telescope control software uses a combina-

tion of distributed soft real-time and hard real-time, giv- ing high precision, distribution architecture, real-time opera- tion, reliability, security, and openness design. Its core func- tion is to control the actuator for precise pointing and track- ing of targets, while calculating system error and compen- sating for it, to achieve high-quality target images.

Antarctic telescope control software runs on a com- User layer Software layer Hardware layer Antarctic site control Motion command The telescope master control host uses a dual- machine operation mode, with dual network card binding for each host, and automatic load balancing. Communica- tions between the host and each node are unified using TCP/IP-based socket protocol, and the master control host is responsible for coordinating the work between each node. The master control host parses, encodes and redis- tributes the commands coming from the communication host, while being responsible for re-encoding, compress- ing, and packaging the information fed back from each node to upload to the communication host. Through this control method, the work of each telescope can be effec- tively coordinated to improve the observation efficiency and increase scientific output.

Modular and Maintainable Design

The maintenance cycle of a telescope at Dome A is long, with only one on-site opportunity per year, lasting less than 20 days. The limited number of Antarctic research team members cannot meet the demand for profes- sional personnel of various disciplines, and the combina- tion of modularization and easy maintenance of the con- trol system design is particularly important. Researchers of different specialties can be competent in the mainte- nance and upgrading of the telescope control system after simple training. For example, the hardware component of the control system of the Antarctic Sky Survey Tele- scope adopts a layered cabinet design, with each drawer control box responsible for the unit function module, facili- tating upgrade and maintenance activities. The modular

puter between the user layer and the equipment layer, allow- ing information interaction with the equipment layer through the network interface, and achieving information interactions between the different types of user layer through the human-computer interface and software inter- face protocol. The architecture of the control software for an Antarctic telescope is shown in Remote control design of the AST3-3 cabinet is shown in Reliability Management

Reliability management, based on knowledge and data, is currently a widely adopted approach in Antarctic telescopes. The fault diagnosis and self-healing expert sys- tem is a reliability management tool, developed using exist- ing knowledge, which is an intelligent computer program with automatically execute and possess logical reasoning capabilities. This system integrates operational knowl- edge and expert experience from Antarctic telescopes, such as AST3 and CSTAR, using this information to iden- tify, locate, and even autonomously resolve system faults.

By implementing complex problem-solving processes such as logical reasoning and linguistic description through computer programming, the expert system simu- lates human cognition to address telescope malfunctions with expert-level capability and analytical thinking.

Expert systems store a large amount of human knowl- edge bases and are equipped with logical reasoning and decision-making mechanisms, thereby playing an impor- tant role in telescope reliability management.

The expert system contains a host computer, a knowl- edge acquisition machine, a knowledge base, a comprehen- sive database, a reasoning machine, a diagnostic log. Its design principle is shown in Data-based reliability management uses telescope con- dition monitoring data to analyze operational status, provid- ing critical support for on-site maintenance personnel.

This can improve work efficiency while serving as a refer- User interface software

Control logic Data record Power distribution Communication State monitor

Universal motion and automation controller Data acquisition module Power module Serial port server Other devices

Heater box Temperature & camera box Serial port server & PDU GPS host Telescope control computer UMAC control RA drive box DEC drive box Domain expert Data acquisition and processing Database Status data collection Telescope ence for remote maintenance teams to assess real-time con- ditions at the Antarctic site. Telescope status data con- sists of three primary categories: operational data, observa- tional data, and environmental data.

Operational data comprises real-time operational param- eters and performance metrics, including tracking error, loop current, voltage, and temperature rise in heating sys- tems. Observational data involves the analysis and evalua- tion of final output data quality, with key assessment crite- ria including stellar Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM), atmospheric extinction levels, and energy distri- bution profiles. Among these, FWHM is a parameter that measures the observational quality of the telescope, reflect- ing its resolution, but is limited by seeing conditions. Atmo- spheric extinction is the phenomenon of intensity attenua- tion due to absorption and scattering when light passes through Earth’s atmosphere. The extinction coefficient can be measured using either photometric or all-sky cam- Operational data Observational data Monitoring data Environmental data CURRENT STATUS AT DOME A Astronomical research at Dome A commenced in 2008, during China’s 24 Antarctic Scientific Expedition.

After years of infrastructure development, multiple astro- nomical instruments have been successfully deployed and operated at Dome A. Some of these, such as CSTAR and AST3-1, have already yielded valuable results and been sub- sequently decommissioned The astronomical instruments currently operating at Dome A include AST3-2, the Near-infrared Telescope, PLATO-A, the Kunlun Automatic Weather Station-2 Gener- ation (KLAWS-2G), and the Kunlun Differential Image Motion Monitors (KL-DIMM). The Dome A astronomi- cal site is shown in AST3-2 was installed at Kunlun Station in 2013 and has been in operation for more than 12 years, with scien- tific data still being produced. During the 40th Chinese Antarctic Scientific Research Expedition 2024, researchers at Kunlun Station conducted comprehensive upgrades and maintenance on AST3-2, successfully restor- ing it to full functionality. Upgrade and maintenance tasks for AST3-2 included modification of the focusing system, era methods. Energy distribution profile is a key measure of the energy distribution of a telescope system, covering the Point Spread Function (PSF). The energy distribution of an Antarctic telescope is less affected by the atmo- sphere than ground-based telescopes constructed else- where on the planet. Finally, environmental data, col- lected by on-site meteorological stations, provides critical external condition measurements such as ambient tempera- ture and wind speed.

By integrating and analyzing these status datasets, the current operational performance of the telescope can be evaluated in real time, enabling proactive maintenance and optimization. The data acquisition system is shown in replacement of the camera, enhancement of the mirror heat- ing system, and software upgrades.

In 2025, during the 41st Chinese Antarctic Scientific Research Expedition, the crew of Kunlun Station per- formed further maintenance on AST3-2. Currently, the tele- scope is operating normally and conducting scientific obser- vation tasks. The status of the AST3-2 can be acquired using a camera at Dome A, with an example shown in The AST3-3 was developed in 2020 and installed at the Yao’an Observatory in Yunnan Province in the same year, for trial operation. In June 2021, an expert panel com- prising representatives from the Purple Mountain Observa- tory (PMO), NIAOT, the Yunnan Observatories (YNAO), the Nanjing Astronomical Instrument Co., Ltd. (NAIRC), and Tsinghua University conducted comprehensive perfor- mance testing and acceptance evaluation of the AST3-3 sys- tem. Designed for infrared observation missions at Kun- lun Station, the telescope is currently awaiting the comple- tion of its infrared camera, which is under active develop- ment. AST3-3 is scheduled for installation at Kunlun Sta- tion in the near future. AST3-3, in operation at Yao’an Observatory, is shown in Position/Velocity/Tracking error/Current/ Voltage/Limit signal, etc

FWHM/Ellipticity/Limiting magnitude/ Atmospheric extinction levels, etc

Temperature/Humidity/Wind speed/ Wind direction/Air pressure, etc

PLATO-A engine module Wind turbine Solar panel AST3-2 CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK

The efficiency and scientific output of an Antarctic tele- scope are directly influenced by its control system, mak- ing it imperative to design systems optimized for reliabil- ity. Here, we analyze the factors affecting the reliability of Antarctic telescopes from various aspects and describe how this was applied in the development of AST3. We also summarize the development of existing Antarctic tele- scopes, which can provide technical accumulation and direc- tion for enhancing reliability in the development of future Antarctic telescopes.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported by the National Natural Sci- ence Foundation of China (12303089, 11973065), and the Jiangsu Funding Program for Excellent Postdoctoral Tal- ent (2022ZB449). We thank the Polar Research Institute of China (PRIC) for their support and help with the Antarc- tic telescope project.

AI DISCLOSURE STATEMENT AI-assisted technology is not used in the preparation of this work.

Astronomical instruments at Dome A KL-DIMM PLATO-A instrument module Near-infrared telescope AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS Yun Li performed experiments, analyzed data, and wrote the original draft of the manuscript. Shihai Yang and Xiaoyan Li conceived the ideas. Zhenshuai Yan con- tributed to the study design and corrected the language.

Yanpeng Guo, Zhuangzhuang Deng, and Cong Pan, as members of the Antarctic project team, contributed to the preparation of this manuscript. Zhengyang Li and Bozhong Gu administrated and supervised the project.

Michael Ashley provided developed PLATO-A, which pro- vides energy and communication support for the opera- tion of the Antarctic telescope. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

DECLARATION OF INTERESTS

Zhengyang Li is the Executive Editor-in-Chief and Michael Ashley is an editorial board member for Astronom- ical Techniques and Instruments. They were not involved in the editorial review or the decision to publish this arti- cle. The authors declare no competing interests.

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