Preamble

Dual-Site Coordination Regulated Crystallization High-Performance MAPbBr X-ray Detectors Zhang Yuanjie Huatong Hongtao 1,2,3,* Zhigang

1 College

Nuclear Science Technology, Harbin Engineering University, 150001, China

2 Heilongjiang

Institute Atomic Energy, 150086, China

3 College

Physics Optoelectronic Engineering, Harbin Engineering University, 150001, China *Email: (Hongtao Zhao); (Zhigang

Abstract

Organic-inorganic hybrid perovskite single crystals shown great potential next-generation high-sensitivity X-ray detectors.

However, thermodynamic instability their precursor solutions often leads disordered nucleation defect proliferation during crystallization, which considerably limits performance resulting devices. study shows polymeric inhibitor effectively suppresses disordered nucleation perovskite precursor solutions coordination mechanism between MAPbBr precursor solutions revealed (Independent Gradient Model based Hirshfeld partition) analysis, density functional theory (DFT) calculations, experimental results. revealed forms distinct dual-site coordin ation complex interacting simultaneously through carbonyl pyrrolidone ring. specific coordination geometry significantly enhances thermodynamic stability precursor system maintaining optimal solute concentrat within metastable zone, effectively inhibiting spontaneous nucleation.

MAPbBr (with exhibit defect density carrier mobility-lifetime product X-ray detector fabricated based crystal demonstrate sensitivity detection limit study provides strategy modulating perovskite crystallization kinetics through coordination engineering, offering viable pathway develop high-performance radiation detectors.

Keywords

MAPbBr Crystal growth, Dual-Site, Polymers, X-ray Detector

1. Introduction

Organic-inorganic hybrid perovskites attracted considerable attention their remarkable performance various applications, including solar photodetectors

light-emitting diodes These materials exhibit particularly promising potential high-energy radiation detection their atomic number constituent elements, (Pb), which confer strong radiation attenuation capabilities enable efficient absorption X-ray photons conditions, carrier concentration generated perovskite substantially lower under solar illumination, placing stringent demands these materials terms defect reduction enhanced charge transport properties Consequently, superior charge transport properties reduced defect densities required perovskite-based X-ray detection applications. perovskites viable X-ray detection, their properties optimized address these challenges.

Studies shown achieving high-quality crystals reduced defect densities enhanced charge transport crucial Recent efforts focused modifying crystallization process perovskites using polymers, which effectively regulate formation perovskite films.

Long-chain polymers, particular, shown promote formation larger grains passivate grain boundary defects through cross-linking interactions between their repeating units perovskite precursors example, oly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) retards crystal growth forming intermediate complexes thereby producing polycrystalline films superior smoothness, reduced defect density, enlarged grain other work, carboxymethyl chitosan (CMC) introduced, whereby carboxyl groups chelate ions. process induces nucleation thereby enhances quality Meanwhile, dimethyl itaconate functions Lewis coordinating Subsequently, thermal polymerization generates steric hindrance, which facilitates intercalation improves crystallization kinetics Despite promising

results

polycrystalline materials, perovskite single crystals offer superior performance X-ray detection their higher carrier mobility, longer recombination lifetimes, reduced migration, improved stability, stemming elimination grain boundaries defects Although solution-growth

methods

temperature lowering antisolvent vapor-assisted crystallization evaporation commonly produce single crystals, often suffer prolonged durations, difficulty controlling nucleation, issues crystal defect density.

Elevated supersaturation levels typically induce excessive nucleation, restricting crystal growth leading

defects [17]. Building strategy polymer-mediated nucleation control, researchers utilized polyacrylic (PAA) coordinate carboxyl groups, effectively ppressing formation nuclei reducing nucleation density. approach enabled successful synthesis high-quality MAPbI single crystals larger significantly improving crystalline quality ility Although polymer-mediated strategies demonstrated considerable potential, current studies remain largely focused polymer systems single functional sites.

In-depth investigations dual-functional-site

polymers and their underlying mechanisms are still relatively scarce.

address these challenges propose novel approach based bidentate ligand-assisted

method

incorporating polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP, ,000) perovskite precursor solution. carbonyl group pyrrolidone ring, effectively coordinates during nucleation, reducing formation octahedral nuclei limiting diffusion solute molecules. coordination stabilizes solution reduces nucleation density, ultimately facilitating growth high-quality MAPbBr single crystals. resulting single crystals exhibit significantly improved quality, 3.47-fold reduction defect density substantially reduced migration.

Additionally, X-ray detectors based these MAPbBr single crystals promising performance, stable sensitivity detection limit conclusion, bidentate ligand-assisted

method

using offers highly effective strategy fabricating high-quality perovskite single crystals. approach represents significant forward development high-performance X-ray detectors, providing foundation further advancements radiation detection technologies.

methods

Materials: Methylammonium bromide 99.5%) purchased Polymer Light Technology Corp. bromide (PbBr 99.0%), polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP, ,000), N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF, 98.5%) obtained Shanghai Aladdin Biochemical chnology Synthesis MAPbBr MAPbBr precursor solution prepared dissolving (0.15 mixture stirred temperature

hours ensure complete dissolution subsequently filtered through organic syringe filter. nucleation-assisted growth, solution placed heating furnace slowly heated single

analysis

Independent Gradient Model based Hirshfeld partition represents significant improvement conventional Independent Gradient Model (IGM). optimizes graphical representation interactions employing Hirshfeld partition actual molecular electron density.

Integrated MultiWFN wavefunction

analysis

software, enables in-depth exploration intermolecular interactions chemical bonding interactions. calculation calculations performed using program Molecular geometries optimized B3LYP -D3(BJ) /def2-TZVP level. atomic charges computed using MultiWFN Frequency

analysis

confirmed absence imaginary frequencies, indicating optimized structures correspond local minima potential energy surface.

Single-point energy calculations carried optimized geometries PWPB95 -D3(BJ)/def2-QZVPP level.

Solvation energies computed using model Gibbs energies systems across temperature range calculated using Shermo program rigid rotor harmonic oscillator (RRHO) model applying vibrational scaling factor 0.985. Finally, changes Gibbs energy reactions determined. solubility MAPbBr MAPbBr powder solubility testing prepared grinding as-grown single crystals small amount powder dissolved containing placed bath. system heated predetermined temperature additional MAPbBr powder introduced increments during stirring. solution regarded fully saturated further dissolution trace solute observed after minutes stirring following final addition. procedure above repeated different temperatures obtain solubility curve.

Characterization

crystal structure MAPbBr single crystals characterized X-ray diffraction (Bruker Smart Apex, radiation).

Photoluminescence spectra acquired using Raman-fluorescence hybrid system (Horiba LabRAM Evolution) xenon excitation source Time-resolved photoluminescence (TRPL) measurements performed Edinburgh FLS980 spectrometer. space-charge-limited current (SCLC) characteristics measured quantify defect density charge transport properties single-crystal perovskite samples. curve measured using semiconductor parameter analyzer (Agilent B1500A).

X-ray Detector performance X-ray detection performance measured shielded minimize electromagnetic ambient light interference.

X-ray source generated X-ray (VF-50J-Rh) operated current adjusted modulate X-ray rate. mm-thick aluminum filter attenuator shape X-ray spectrum.

X-ray calibrated using calibrated dosimeter. X-ray response current recorded using digital source meter (Keithley 2400).

discussion

growth temperature dictates thermodynamic stability precursor solution system crystal growth rate, thereby influencing nucleation density crystalline quality. better illustrate nucleation process MAPbBr Figure presents nucleation temperature (N-T) solubility temperature (S-T) curves MAPbBr These curves divide diagram three distinct regions: unsaturated (below curve, where spontaneous nucleation occur within solubility limit), metastable (between curves where nucleation followed crystal growth without exceeding nucleation threshold, enabling continuous crystal growth), unstable (above curve, where thermodynamic kinetic criteria leading spontaneous formation numerous nuclei limiting growth large single crystals).

Therefore, obtain high-quality large-sized single crystals, essential maintain solution concentration within metastable (slightly below curve). shown MAPbBr precursor solution under high-temperature conditions, simultaneous occurrence nucleation growth causes sharp decline solute concentration, resulting

entry unsaturated consequent cessation crystal growth.

Throughout entire crystallization process, MAPbBr precursor solution consistently maintains composition within metastable zone, thereby enabling successful acquisition high-quality single crystals. perovskite precursor solutions, colloidal particles coexist perovskite precursor adding MAPbBr precursor solution, coordinates surface these colloids. clarify microscopic interaction mechanism between MAPbBr precursor solution, employed characterization. presented measurements reveal average colloidal MAPbBr precursor solution approximately Following introduction, colloidal increases enlargement indicates formation complex clusters between precursor which reduces concentration (n-2) species MAPbBr solution. coordination interaction between MAPbBr precursor further confirmed spectroscopy. shown observed attributed stretching vibration while corresponds stretching vibration pyrrolidone system electron cloud density remains unchanged, discernible shift position relative complex,

analysis

reveals acting strong Lewis acid, forms coordination carbonyl oxygen, inducing shift downshift indicates coordination interaction between electron nitrogen atom. system, intermediate complex formulation )(PbBr formed.

Within complex, partially occupy coordination sites thereby reducing coordination strength between functional groups.

Consequently, stretching vibrations shifted respectively. study, Independent Gradient Model based Hirshfeld partition (IGMH) employed visualize interactions systems. isosurface corresponds interaction between carbonyl oxygen while isosurface corresponds nitrogen pyrrolidone ring, confirming presence distinct coordination sites. character istic color these isosurfaces

indicates interactions primarily electrostatic nature, which consistent spectroscopic observations. contrast, DMF-Pb system exhibits single interaction modality, manifested isosurface localized carbonyl oxygen, indicating comparatively simpler coordination environment. further analyze thermodynamic properties calculations performed determine thermodynamic reaction energy change

results

indicate binding stability significantly stronger within temperature range value coordination reaction PVP-PbBr kcal/mol, which kcal/mol lower DMF-PbBr system (-10.02 kcal/mol). worth noting variation reaction energy temperature (from +1.20 kcal/mol) smaller system (from +1.48 kcal/mol), indicating coordination interaction between possesses higher thermal stability. characteristic enables release elevated temperatures, effectively suppressing stray nucleation. monomer supply regulation mechanism based thermodynamic equilibrium serves critical foundation preparation MAPbBr single crystals defect density. regulating MAPbBr precursor solution:

Nucleation solubility curves MAPbBr concentration MAPbBr precursor solutions (with without function temperature.

Colloid distribution MAPbBr precursor solutions without spectra different precursor components.

results

interacting color scheme isosurface described. Thus, propose mechanism polymer-controlled nucleation growth perovskite solution.

Within metastable crystal growth, growth crystal determined processes: transport solutes toward crystal interface (predominantly diffusion-controlled) deposition solutes interface

order obtain high-quality MAPbBr necessary maintain dynamic equilibrium between deposition interface solute diffusion rate. illustrated conventional method, contains oxygen-coordinating groups temperature, forming precursor-DMF complex temperature increases, dissociates solutes diffuse freely low-viscosity promotes rapid nucleation MAPbBr which tends induce secondary nucleation. growth process leads formation defects dislocations stacking faults precursor solution system added

introduction

increases solution viscosity. Meanwhile, network structure formed chains hinders solute diffusion.

MAPbBr PVP), showing dissociation precursor-solvent complexes nucleation process.

MAPbBr (with PVP), demonstrating reaction mechanism between precursors controls nucleation. further verify crystalline quality obtained samples, structural optical characterizations performed. shown surface MAPbBr (with appears smoother uniform, indicating deposition solute crystal interface became homogeneous, thereby suppressing formation surface defects. illustrated signal intensity MAPbBr measured whereas MAPbBr (with exhibited significantly enhanced intensity shown compared MAPbBr MAPbBr (with exhibit decreased full-width-at-half-maximum (FWHM) (100) peak, indicating improved

crystallinity [ 34 ].

UV-vis absorption, steady-state photoluminescence (PL), time-resolved photoluminescence (TRPL) spectroscopy performed investigate optical properties

MAPbBr depicted absorption spectrum MAPbBr exhibit sharp onset plots yield identical optical which consistent values reported literature MAPbBr single crystals prepared conventional

methods

indicates incorporation hardly changed MAPbBr Furthermore, spectroscopy acquired using combined Raman-fluorescence system Comparative

analysis

spectrum indicates MAPbBr (with exhibits shift emission relative MAPbBr PVP), accompanied significant enhancement intensity reduction FWHM.

These spectral features suggest decrease defect state density inhibition non-radiative ombination spectrum further employed provide direct evidence improved crystal quality. depicted average carrier lifetime MAPbBr (with significantly longer MAPbBr (35.31 notable extension carrier lifetime indicates reduction non-radiative recombination lower defect density, confirming superior crystalline quality reduced trap-state density MAPbBr grown additive MAPbBr single crystals: patterns.

High-resolution (100) diffraction peak. Absorption spectrum plots bandgap determination. spectrum. spectrum. trap-state density, critical indicator crystal quality, characterized using method.

Au/MAPbBr devices fabricated current-voltage (I-V) measurements. shown typical characteristics, three operational regimes clearly

distinguishable: Ohmic region, region, Child region. voltages, current follows dominated intrinsic thermally generated carriers. voltage increases, sharp current occurs trap-filled limit voltage indicating saturation available states. trap-state density carrier mobility quantitatively calculated using following equation

ee = ( 1 )

where vacuum permittivity (8.85 F/m), relative dielectric constant MAPbBr =25.5) denotes trap-filling limit voltage, elementary charge crystal thickness between electrodes, current density, carrier mobility, applied voltage. shown calculated trap-state densities MAPbBr MAPbBr (with PVP).

Notably, density PVP-modified crystal substantially lower those state-of-the-art semiconductors MAPbBr (with exhibits carrier mobility which significantly higher MAPbBr (88.7 improved carrier mobility, coupled lower trap-state density, indicates superior crystal quality MAPbBr (with PVP), which essential achieving high-performance X-ray detection applications. assess X-ray absorption capability MAPbBr single crystals, X-ray absorption coefficients various common materials within energy range calculated using photon cross-section database, shown absorption coefficient MAPbBr substantially higher conventional silicon, comparable all-inorganic perovskite CsPbBr exceeds hybrid organic inorganic perovskite MAPbCl demonstrating superior X-ray absorption performance. crystal thickness MAPbBr single crystals achieve attenuation X-ray, significantly surpassing X-ray detectors, mobility lifetime product critical performance tric, which derived fitting Hecht equation

m t = - - ( 3 )

where photocurrent, saturation photocurrent, applied voltage, device thickness. shown MAPbBr (with exhibits product which notably higher MAPbBr These

results

indicate PVP-modified crystal possesses superior charge transport properties under X-ray irradiation, demonstrating strong potential high-performance detection applications.

X-ray detection performance MAPbBr single crystals.

Defect density carrier mobility calculated

method

MAPbBr MAPbBr (with Absorption coefficients different materials function X-ray energy.

Attenuation efficiency different materials X-ray. Photoconductivity measurement MAPbBr MAPbBr (with X-ray detection performance MAPbBr (with MAPbBr detectors characterized. current density characteristics detectors under X-ray irradiation shown various voltages, types detectors exhibit linear photocurrent response X-ray decreases sensitivity derived current density elationships under different biases quantitatively assess detector performance. formulas calculating sensitivity signal-to-noise (SNR) ratio follows

• = ( 4 )

I I N =

Where: X-ray rate, photo current density generated X-ray, current density, photo average photocurrent, average current, photocurrent. sensitivity under different voltages obtained linearly fitting relationship between current density X-ray voltage detector based MAPbBr (with achieved sensitivity significantly higher detector using MAPbBr (6495.90 Furthermore, following IUPAC definition, determined signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) shown Fig.S4 detector MAPbBr (with bias, which substantially lower detector based MAPbBr (358.27 below required medical diagnostic applications comparison previously reported MAPbBr X-ray detectors Table confirms competitive performance devices. response speed crucial X-ray imaging applications. temporal response

results

detector MAPbBr (with exhibits shorter those detector MAPbBr (0.49 respectively). improvement

results

higher carrier mobility PVP-incorporated crystal, which facilitates efficient charge extraction.

MAPbBr single-crystal detectors. X-ray response current function under different voltages detectors based MAPbBr MAPbBr (with Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) function X-ray detectors based MAPbBr MAPbBr (with Comparison sensitivity achieved detector previously reported values MAPbBr -based detectors.

Temporal ponse etectors based MAPbBr MAPbBr (with X-ray imaging performance MAPbBr detector shown schematic illustration X-ray imaging measurements shown object placed between X-ray source detector, moved scanning manipulator ensure uniform X-ray exposure across different regions.

X-ray absorption capacity object varies depending thickness elemental composition. object X-ray absorption capacity exposed X-ray, X-ray transmitted, leading smaller response current detector.

Conversely, detector produces large response current X-ray absorption capacity under exposure.

X-ray imaging capability detector demonstrated employing aperture pattern intricate internal structures, respectively, under High-quality images objects clearly revealed MAPbBr single-crystal detector.

Schematic diagram imaging setup.

X-ray images acquired voltage showing pattern "HEU" stability X-ray detector based MAPbBr single crystal evaluated. contrast rapid performance degradation observed device fabricated MAPbBr device utilizing MAPbBr (with maintained stable response under ambient conditions, shown MAPbBr single-crystal X-ray detectors.

Stability measured detectors based MAPbBr MAPbBr (with under X-ray irradiation

4. Conclusions

summary, study demonstrates introducing coordinating polymer precursor solution facilitates formation dual-site anchoring mechanism, providing effective strategy controlling perovskite crystallization. calculations reveal molecular structure provides sites strong interaction ions, stabilizing precursor colloids allowing controlled release during thermal growth, which optimizes crystal growth kinetics. strategy yields high-quality single crystals defect density, carrier mobility, short response time, impressive product X-ray detector exhibits excellent performance, including sensitivity provides crucial theoretical guidance technical pathway developing advanced perovskite X-ray detectors.

Funding supported Scientific Research Business Project Heilongjiang Provincial Research Institutes CZJBKYF2023-02), Specialized Capability Enhancement

Project Heilongjiang Academy sciences YSTS2025YZN01), Project Research development Heilongjiang Academy sciences ZDYF2024YZN01).

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