Abstract
Despite advances in vision research, how people see objects remains unclear. In this study, a WT5518 Visual Characteristics Tester imitating an electric fan was developed and used to investigate visual cognition. The tester could induce various visual illusions. Analysis of these visual illusions revealed that the human visual system consists of high- and low-speed visual subsystems, in which the visual brain processes visual information from the high- and low-speed visual pathways, and consciousness recognizes visual information from the visual brain. The two subsystems are independent of each other and do not interfere with each other, however, at some speeds, there is an intersection between the two subsystems. Furthermore, human vision comprises two states, i.e. the visual “filming state,” and “staring state.” During the “filming state,” consciousness captures and recognizes images from the high- and low-speed visual brain simultaneously, so, at this moment the individual can see the surrounding scenes. During the “staring state,” consciousness does not capture any images, thus, at this moment the individual cannot see the surrounding scenes. Ultimately, visual information is discrete and intermittent. In the “staring state,” vision stares at the images taken previously, therefore, the intermittence of visual information can hardly be perceived. Alternation of the two visual states endows human vision with frequency characteristics. The frequency at which consciousness samples visual information is 100 Hz. The cognitive behavior of people’s vision is synchronous. Both high- and low-speed vision subsystems can create illusions but only high-speed vision can create afterimages. This study provides a foundation for cognitive research.
Full Text
Preamble
Understanding cognitive process human visual system analysing illusions generated using visual characteristics tester Laiyou Huang School Electronic Science Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
Abstract
Despite advances vision research, people objects remains unclear. study, WT5518 Visual Characteristics Tester imitating electric developed investigate visual cognition. tester could induce various visual illusions.
Analysis
these visual illusions revealed human visual system consists high- low-speed visual subsystems, which visual brain processes visual information high- low-speed visual pathways, consciousness recognizes visual information visual brain. subsystems independent other interfere other, however, speeds, there intersection between subsystems.
Furthermore, human vision comprises states, visual filming state, staring state.
During filming state, consciousness captures recognizes images high- low-speed visual brain simultaneously, moment individual surrounding scenes.
During staring state, consciousness capture images, thus, moment individual cannot surrounding scenes.
Ultimately, visual information discrete intermittent. staring state, vision stares images taken previously, therefore, intermittence visual information hardly perceived.
Alternation visual states endows human vision frequency characteristics. frequency which consciousness samples visual information cognitive behavior people vision synchronous. high- low-speed vision subsystems create illusions high-speed vision create afterimages. study provides foundation
cognitive research.
Keywords
Psychology, Neuroscience, Vision, Consciousness, Cognition
Introduction
Human vision involves eyes, visual pathway system visual brain. visual pathway system comprises three separate, independent visual paths, which process transmit different aspects retinal image brain regions magnocellular pathway starts photoreceptors projects M-cell layers, which consists large axons lateral geniculate nucleus. parvocellular pathway starts photoreceptors projects P-cell layers, which consists medium-sized axons lateral geniculate nucleus koniocellular pathway starts bistratified retinal ganglion cells projects K-cell layers, which consists small axons lateral geniculate nucleus parvocellular magnocellular pathways selective form/color
depth/movement object, respectively. Color, form, motion perceived different times, color being perceived first Human vision associated perceptual temporal hierarchy visual brain subsequently combines relevant visual attributes perceived asynchronously, generating unified experience visual world Partial damage visual system brain
result
partial visual function, which suggests brain recognizes visual information There scientists believe consciousness plays important visual cognition however, consciousness recognizes visual information explained.
Through
analysis
visual illusions, study found general conscious
recognition of visual information.
Materials
Methods
Ethics statement study protocol approved Medical Ethics Sub-Committee Science Technology Ethics Committee Nanjing University (OAP20230829001).
Written informed consents obtained participants. experiments performed accordance relevant guidelines regulations.
Participants experimental equipment
total volunteers (aged, years; women excluding pregnant women) participated study randomly selected. participants divided eight groups participants each. test, least participants participated test. participants stood anywhere meters front tester. study visual cognition, WT5518 Visual Characteristics Tester developed. tester composed motor, flange mounted axis, several blades different shapes. rotational speed motor manipulated using remote controls. default rotation direction clockwise. tester could induce various visual illusions changing number shape blades flange adjusting rotational speed motor during experiments.
Experiments
Experiment
Visual phenomena induced rotating blades white identical rectangular blades installed WT5518 Visual Characteristics Tester other. flange diameter blade length width shown (Fig.
flange diameter blade length width changeable. number blades could varied. rotational speed motor changed, series strange visual phenomena appeared. motor rotated between participants white identical rectangular blades spaced rotating clockwise direction. faster speed, blurred blades. motor rotated outer parts blades blurred inner parts blades. motor rotated inner parts white identical rectangular blades could still rotating clockwise.
Simultaneously, participants identical fan-shaped blades spaced without rotation, inner parts fan-shaped blades disappeared inner parts white rectangular blades always overlapped outer parts group fan-shaped blades.
motor speed there little deviation between actual speed speed. actual speed motor equal speed, participants fan-shaped blades fixed
without rotation and the same 12 angles, as shown in Video 1 .
actual speed motor slightly higher participants fan-shaped blades rotating slowly clockwise direction,
as shown in Video 2 .
actual speed motor slightly below participants fan-shaped blades rotating slowly anticlockwise direction,
shown in Video 3 .
Since motor cannot always achieve actual speed equal speed, participants blades sometimes turn, sometimes slowly turned clockwise, sometimes slowly turned counterclockwise. above three cases, rectangular white blades disappeared completely sight. matter blades turned, participants result. motor rotated participants fan-shaped blades
rotating slowly in a clockwise direction, as shown in Video 2 .
motor rotated participants fan-shaped blades
rotating slowly in an anticlockwise direction, as shown in Video 3 .
Experiment
Visual afterimages induced high-speed rotating
blades white rectangular blade installed flange black rectangular blade shape installed angle white blade counterweight. flange diameter blade length width (Fig. rotational speeds, white blade could whereas black blade hidden black background. motor rotated participants fan-shaped blades between blades without rotation. participants produced visual afterimages.
Experiment
Visual illusions induced high-speed rotating blades white rectangular blades installed other. flange diameter blade length width (Fig. motor rotated clockwise 1,000, 333.3, 166.7, participants fan-shaped blades respectively, without rotation.
Experiment
Investigation synchronized cognitive behavior high-speed vision white rectangular blades installed other. flange diameter blade length width (Fig. motor rotated clockwise participants white rectangular blades fan-shaped blades simultaneously, completely
overlapped fixed different angles without rotation, shown Video
Experiment
Visual illusions produced low-speed rotating blades white rectangular blades installed other. flange diameter blade length width (Fig. motor rotated participants white rectangular blades fixed different angles without rotation, shown Video motor rotated participants white rectangular blades rotating slowly clockwise direction. motor rotated participants white rectangular blades rotating slowly anticlockwise direction. videos article frequency front tester. video-induced images those induced tester demonstrations, while others different those induced tester cannot demonstration.
discussion
Visual system
Human visual system consists high- low-speed vision
consciousness recognizes visual information
Experiment
white rectangular blades rotated between participants white rectangular blades spaced rotating clockwise direction. visual system involved seeing white rectangular blades low-speed vision.
Experiment
white rectangular blades rotated participants fan-shaped blades fixed angles without rotation (Video visual system involved seeing fan-shaped blades high-speed vision.
Experiment
white rectangular blades rotated medium speed white rectangular blades could still rotating clockwise; however, participants additionally fan-shaped blades spaced without rotation. shapes white rectangular blades identical white rectangular blades
Experiment
therefore involved low-speed vision. shapes fan-shaped blades similar
Experiment
quarter
Experiment
number times
Experiment
therefore involved high-speed vision. participants high-speed visual information simultaneously, inferred human vision consists low-speed (visualization white rectangular blades rotating speed) high-speed (visualization fan-shaped blades rotating speed) vision.
Based above
results
vision research, study draws following conclusions:
eyes, parvocellular system brain constitute high-speed visual sensor. parvocellular system composed medium-sized cells, which sensitive information related high-speed motion. high-speed visual sensor forms high-speed vision consciousness (Fig.
Diagram Consciousness Consciousness constantly searches parts brain associated eyes, ears, nose, tongue body, identifies information. eyes, magnocellular system another brain constitute low-speed visual sensor. magnocellular system composed large cells, which sensitive information related low-speed motion. low-speed visual sensor forms low-speed vision consciousness (Fig.
Experiment
demonstrated high- low-speed vision independent other interfere other, speeds, there intersection between them.
convert light information bioelectrical signal, high- low-speed information bioelectrical signal transmitted visual brain high- low-speed visual pathways, respectively. visual brain processes separate streams information, however, visual information unrecognizable.
Consciousness required sample high- low-speed visual information produce cognition separately comparing incoming information known information, thereby allowing sight Visual cognition therefore possible without consciousness (Fig. supported clinical evidence vision consists visual subsystems.
There movement blindness (caused damage cerebral cortex). stationary object, moving object.
Others suffer imperceptible forms (often accompanied color blindness, which shadows seen).
These patients great difficulty recognizing object rest, little difficulty seeing moving.
Several observations support
conclusion
consciousness required
recognize visual information.
First, visual information continuously transmitted visual brain; however, visual information continuous, suggesting destination visual information visual brain, consciousness.
Second, visual information regarding various aspects object, color, shape, motion, transmitted visual brain different times visual brain cannot assimilate these asynchronous features.
Instead, consciousness samples
visual information visual brain, combines relevant visual attributes comparing incoming information previous knowledge, provides unified visual world Third, partial damage visual brain, resulting partial visual function, cannot proven caused cognitive function visual brain. partial damage visual brain tissues
results
visual brain ability process information, consciousness access relevant visual information, resulting partial visual function. sleep example situation which consciousness, brain, recognize information. person awake, consciousness constantly searches auditory brain recognizes sound information person During sleep, consciousness search auditory brain person therefore sounds.
High-speed vision High-speed visual information discrete intermittent
Experiment
despite continuous rotation, participants observe rotation, which suggests high-speed vision functions similar movie camera, alternating between registering pieces high-speed visual information pausing. shooting frequency high-speed vision synchronizes rotational frequency motor, blades fixed certain angles,
without rotation (Video 1 ).
Based above analysis, working mechanism high-speed vision follows: consciousness examines high-speed visual brain, vision filming state, consciousness captures image high-speed visual brain.
Consciousness subsequently recognizes image generates cognition comparing incoming information previous knowledge. image seen. consciousness leaves high-speed visual brain, vision staring state, during which consciousness capture image scenes cannot seen.
Consciousness continuously alternates between filming staring states, ultimately, high-speed visual information becomes discrete intermittent. staring state, high-speed vision stares information taken previously, therefore, intermittence high-speed visual information hardly perceived.
High-speed visual frequency alternation between visual states endows high-speed vision frequency characteristics.
Experiment
actual rotating speed motor participants fan-shaped blades fixed angles without rotation.
High-speed vision captured image motor rotated during rotational cycle, images captured high-speed vision, frequency synchronizations between shooting frequency high-speed
vision and the rotational frequency of the motor occurred (Video 1 ).
High-speed visual frequency calculated equation representing rotational speed motor, representing rotational frequency motor representing shooting frequency high-speed vision, representing filming period high-speed vision.
Then,
Experiment
T h =
� ℎ = 1 100 = 10 (ms)
Numerous studies shown operating frequency high-speed vision photoelectric sensor composed infrared transmitting receiving tubes mounted plate tester. photoelectric sensor emits pulse rotating blade passes through During rotational cycle motor, blades through photoelectric sensor successively photoelectric sensor emits pulses total. total number pulses emitted photoelectric sensor equal shooting frequency high-speed vision system. 18F45K80 microchip control WT5518 visual characteristics tester. photoelectric sensor output connected T1CKI input 18F45K80 microchip timer1, timer1 counter.
Timer0 timer interval seconds. After receiving interuption,
18F45K80 reads timer1 divides number blades passing through photoelectric sensor namely, shooting frequency high-speed vision found photoelectric sensor output pulse measured using UNI-T Digital Storage Oscilloscope (UTD2102CEX), found
result
frequency tested using 18F45K80 average frequency within seconds, fluctuation range therefore relatively small. contrast, immediate frequency measured using oscilloscope, fluctuation range therefore relatively large.
Although
methods
different fluctuation ranges same, calculated high-speed visual frequency, always between values obtained using measurement methods, suggesting high-speed visual frequency calculated using motor speed. cognition behavior people high-speed vision synchronous
Experiment
participants fan-shaped blades fixed different angles. angles visualized participants, which indicated participants high-speed vision filming state staring state time, which suggested cognitive behavior participants high-speed vision synchronous, implying people high-speed visual cognitive behavior synchronous, shown Video
Experiment
showed person visual frequency difference 1/600, would
blades rotating slowly clockwise
Experiment
anticlockwise
Experiment
while others blades rotating motor rotated Therefore, there common visual clock outside human consciousness.
Based frequency characteristics human vision, study concluded common visual clock pulsar rotational frequency pulses rotation.
Similar quantum entanglement there entanglement effect between vision pulses emitted pulsar. pulses induce people vision enter filming state consciousness simultaneously captures image visual brain.
Temporary storage buffer high-speed visual information
Experiment
relationship between rotating speed, number visualised fan-shaped blades, rotating frequency, expressed follows:
n k =
(rpm) example, rotating speed motor 6000/8 rotational speed participants eight fan-shaped blades, between blades, without rotation.
Experiment
therefore demonstrates first-in, first-out temporary storage buffer high-speed visual information high-speed vision.
High-speed vision constantly
extracts information high-speed visual brain temporarily stores discrete stream high-speed visual images temporary storage buffer high-speed visual information. rotational frequency motor 12.5 Hz, high-speed vision obtained eight images during rotational cycle because shooting frequency high-speed vision eight times Owing different shooting times, blades adjacent images positioned other, participants eight fan-shaped blades angle between blades, without rotation,
result
superposition eight discrete images temporary storage buffer high-speed visual information. superposition discrete information visual afterimages.
WT5518 Visual Characteristics Tester indicated temporary storage buffer high-speed visual information least eight images simultaneously.
Further research required investigate whether temporary storage buffer greater storage capacity.
Experiment
high-speed visual illusions described follows:
n i × k =
� × � (rpm) （ i × k <= 120 ）
where represents number installed blades, natural number, represents rotational speed motor. motor rotated participants fan-shaped blades, without rotation. illusion caused
principles described
Experiment
equation yields equation therefore, equation represents general expression these visual illusions. 6000/12 motor rotates participants fan-shaped blades between blades without rotation, which equivalent
Experiment
blades same, image composed blades image after rotating through shooting frequency high-speed vision times rotational frequency motor, high-speed vision captures images total during rotational cycle, high-speed vision captures image every rotation blades, sequentially stores captured images temporary storage buffer high-speed visual information.
Assume storage capacity temporary storage buffer high-speed visual information images temporary storage buffer high-speed visual information same, superposition eight identical images therefore allows participants fan-shaped blades fixed certain angles without rotation. 6000/48 motor rotates participants fan-shaped blades between blades without rotation, which equivalent
Experiment
shooting frequency high-speed vision times rotational frequency motor, high-speed vision captures images total during rotational cycle, high-speed vision captures image every rotation blades, sequentially stores captured images temporary storage buffer high-speed visual
information, thus, images same, superposition eight images temporary storage buffer high-speed visual information allows participants fan-shaped blades fixed certain angles without rotation.
Investigation visual illusion clockwise rotation induced high-speed rotating blades equation motor rotates clockwise speed observers blades rotating slowly clockwise direction. example, motor rotates clockwise observers blades rotating slowly clockwise direction shown
Experiment
(Video isual illusion clockwise rotation explained single-blade experimental system (Fig. blade rotates speed clockwise direction, while observers blade rotates slowly clockwise direction.
high-speed vision filming state, observers blade position followed staring state.
During staring state, observers stare captured information rotating blades front them. filming state appears again, owing acceleration rotational speed, blade moved position position Because principle smallness Gestalt theory), observers blades included interrelated whole, therefore, perception blade rotates slowly clockwise direction.
Investigation visual illusion anticlockwise rotation induced high-speed rotating blades equation motor rotates clockwise speed observers blades rotating slowly anticlockwise direction. example, motor rotates clockwise observers blades rotating slowly anticlockwise direction shown
Experiment
(Video isual illusion anticlockwise rotation explained single-blade experimental system (Fig.
blade rotates speed clockwise direction, while observers blade rotates slowly anticlockwise direction. high-speed vision filming state, observers blade position followed staring state.
During staring state, observers stare captured information rotating blades front them. filming state appears again, owing decrease rotational speed, blade reaches position instead position Because observers blades included interrelated whole, yielding perception blade rotates slowly anticlockwise direction.
Characteristics high-speed vision high-speed vision captures images high-speed visual brain, blades rotate speed. image therefore perceived fan-shaped formed rotation blades during filming state duration. parvocellular system high-speed vision similar high-pass filter; transmits high-speed motion information within certain range high-speed visual brain, preventing transmission information regarding blades rotating speed. rotational speed decreased inner parts fan-shaped blades blocked first parvocellular system began
disappear high-speed vision because linear speed inner parts blades slower outer parts blades. rotational speed decrease fan-shaped blades completely disappeared high-speed vision.
Low-speed vision Cognitive behavior high-speed vision synchronized
Experiment
indicated cognitive behavior high-speed vision synchronized implied low-speed visual information discrete intermittent (Video working frequency low-speed vision frequency referred human visual frequency. cognitive behavior participants low-speed vision synchronous.
Temporary storage buffer low-speed visual information Low-speed visual information discrete intermittent, intermittence hardly perceived. indicates there temporary storage buffer low-speed visual information.
Experiments rotational speed
Experiment
white rectangular blades installed participants white rectangular blades.
Experiment
white rectangular blades installed, participants white rectangular blades without visual afterimage. indicates temporary storage buffer low-speed visual information could store piece visual information.
Investigation illusions induced low-speed rotating blades
Experiment
indicated motor speed number blades criteria defined equation participants white
rectangular blades without rotation (Video 5 ).
n m =
(rpm) Equation similar equations however, equation include visual afterimages, whereas equation represents actual number blades. addition, greater equal
Experiment
showed low-speed vision produce illusions high-speed vision.
Characteristics low-speed vision Low-speed vision allows perception color, form, position, depth object moving speed. magnocellular system low-speed vision similar low-pass filter, transmitting information about resting conditions motion low-speed visual brain, which prevents transmission information regarding motion. rotational speeds between white rectangular blades visible; outer parts blades blurred inner parts blades because linear speed outer parts blades greater
inner parts blades. rotational speed white rectangular blades completely disappeared.
Supplemental information Video illusion high-speed rotating blades rotate (MP4) white identical rectangular blades installed WT5518 Visual Characteristics Tester other. flange diameter blade length width motor speed there little deviation between actual speed speed. actual speed motor equal speed, participants fan-shaped blades fixed without rotation angles. actual speed motor slightly higher participants fan-shaped blades rotating slowly clockwise direction, shown
Video 2 .
actual speed motor slightly below participants fan-shaped blades rotating slowly anticlockwise direction, shown
the Video 3 .
Video illusion high-speed rotating blades rotate slowly clockwise (MP4) white identical rectangular blades installed WT5518 Visual Characteristics Tester other. flange diameter blade length width motor rotated clockwise participants fan-shaped blades rotating slowly clockwise direction.
Video illusion high-speed rotating blades rotate slowly anticlockwise (MP4) white identical rectangular blades installed WT5518 Visual Characteristics Tester other. flange diameter blade length width motor rotated clockwise participants fan-shaped blades rotating slowly anticlockwise direction.
Video synchronous video high-speed vision (MP4) white rectangular blades installed other. flange diameter blade length width motor rotated clockwise participants white
rectangular blades fan-shaped blades simultaneously, completely overlapped fixed different angles without rotation.
Video illusion low-speed rotating blades rotate (MP4) white rectangular blades installed other. flange diameter blade length width motor rotated clockwise participants white rectangular blades fixed different angles without rotation.
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China 2021,64 (6):843-846. Acknowledgements
would thank Prof. Huan-Liu proofreading manuscript, Huang creating images. availability support findings study manuscript. information Lai-You Huang designed study, performed experiments, analyzed wrote manuscript.
Affiliations School Electronic Science Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China Lai-You Huang Correspondence Lai-You Huang Ethics declarations study protocol approved Medical Ethics Sub-Committee Science Technology Ethics Committee Nanjing University (OAP20230829001).
Written informed consents obtained participants. experiments performed accordance relevant guidelines regulations.
Declaration competing interests declares competing interests.