Mechanisms of Generation, Situational Characteristics, and Positive Psychological Effects of Collective Effervescence

Duan Ying¹, Yin Keli¹,*

¹Faculty of Education, Yunnan Normal University, Kunming 650500, China

*Corresponding author: Yin Keli, E-mail: yayasles@163.com

Abstract

The concept of collective effervescence originated from Durkheim's social theory, representing a strong shared emotional experience triggered by collective gatherings. Current psychological research suggests that collective effervescence is not only a strong shared emotional experience, but also a process of perceived emotional synchronization, and a sense of social connection and self-expansion that combines a sense of connection with a sense of the sacred. Collective effervescence is widely found in traditional religious ceremonies and secular life, and due to the Internet breaking through the conditions of group "physical coexistence," a new type of online collective effervescence has emerged. The mechanism of collective effervescence involves multidimensional psychological and behavioral, contextual, and individual trait factors, and current research evidence consistently reveals that collective effervescence not only brings about positive emotional experiences, enhances individuals' sense of belonging and promotes psychological well-being, but also improves group identity and cohesion, and strengthens group norms. Future studies should explore the top-down mechanisms of emotional convergence, further investigate the generation mechanisms of online collective effervescence, examine its potential negative effects and cultural psychological impacts, and actively explore its practical applications.

Keywords: collective effervescence, shared emotional experiences, perceived emotional synchrony, group identity, social connection

Classification: B849: C91

Whether experienced firsthand or through video, we often witness such scenes—at a concert, tens of thousands of people move to the rhythm, every face brimming with joy and ecstasy, eyes meeting inadvertently, sharing a profound collective emotion in that moment. Laughter, shouts, and songs intertwine into a surging tide, individual boundaries gradually dissolve, happiness and energy are transmitted to one another, creating deep resonance. This instantaneous connection is not only physical synchronization but also a shared elevation of emotion and spirit, as if time stands still at this moment, and the world is left with only collective effervescence.

Collective Effervescence (CE) is a strong shared emotional experience triggered by collective assembly and represents the core of such gatherings [1]. Throughout human evolutionary development, collective assemblies have carried human culture and witnessed the passage of time. As an important socio-psychological phenomenon, collective effervescence widely exists across different cultures and historical periods, traceable to ancient religious rituals and similar collective activities [2][3]. It may occur in collective ceremonies such as fire-walking rituals [4] and ceremonial celebrations [5], in collective activities such as large-scale cultural gatherings [6] and major sporting events [7], or even in everyday situations such as watching movies [8]. As a psychological process that can rapidly establish social connections, collective effervescence can effectively alleviate issues such as the intensifying trend of individualism and the widespread increase in loneliness [9][10]. It is not only an indispensable component of social life but also a crucial force that promotes individual survival and happiness while delivering positive psychological effects [11][12][13].

In the early 20th century, sociologist Émile Durkheim first proposed the concept of collective effervescence. He argued that collective effervescence is central to social solidarity, capable of enhancing group cohesion and shaping social norms [14]. However, psychology's focus on individual subjective experience and internal psychological processes was seen as inadequate for revealing the essence of social phenomena [15]. Although this theory profoundly influenced sociology, it was long neglected by psychology. It was not until the early 21st century that collective effervescence regained attention in collective emotion research [1] and demonstrated a trend toward interdisciplinary investigation [16][17][18][19][20].

The rise of interdisciplinary research has created conditions for dialogue between psychology and Durkheim's theory. Based on collective effervescence's positive socio-psychological effects, particularly its special value for mental health [6][8][21], current researchers have incorporated it into the framework of social psychology, thereby achieving theoretical integration and deepening with Durkheim's theory. Grounded in Durkheim's theoretical perspective, this paper elaborates on and analyzes how contemporary psychological research has expanded the connotation of collective effervescence and explained its generation mechanisms, situational contexts, and positive psychological effects. Clarifying the development of collective effervescence in psychology holds dual value: on the theoretical level, it deepens understanding of the interactive relationship between individual and group psychology, and on the practical level, it provides new perspectives for alleviating psychological crises and promoting human well-being.

1. The Connotation and Distinctions of Collective Effervescence

1.1 The Connotation of Collective Effervescence

In his work The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912), drawing upon the research of Baldwin Spencer and F.J. Gillen, Durkheim analyzed Australian Aboriginal tribes and proposed the important social phenomenon of "collective effervescence" [14]. He argued that when people gather together, collective interaction and shared behavioral expressions of emotion trigger strong resonance, bringing individuals into an extremely excited state. In this state, individuals' emotional expression and sensitivity to external stimuli are enhanced, while interactions and responses between individuals create cumulative and amplifying effects of emotion: "Once they come together, an electric current generated by the assembly quickly brings them to a state of extreme excitement. All hearts open fully to external impressions, and emotions seeking expression encounter no obstacles. Everyone responds to others and is responded to in turn. The initial impulse thus advances and intensifies, like an avalanche in continuous augmentation." (p. 297)

Psychological researchers have explored Durkheim's definition of collective effervescence from three main perspectives (as shown in Table 1 [TABLE:1]).

Table 1 [TABLE:1] The Connotation of Collective Effervescence

Scholar (Year) Connotation Hopkins et al., 2016 A strong positive emotional experience Pizarro et al., 2022; Rimé & Páez, 2023 Experience of shared emotion, a state of mutual emotional activation and amplification; a high-intensity collective emotional state Páez et al., 2015; Wlodarczyk et al., 2020 A process of perceived emotional synchrony Pizarro et al., 2022 A psychological experience combining connection and sacredness Gabriel et al., 2017, 2020 (The table appears to have formatting issues in the original)

From an emotional perspective, collective effervescence manifests as a strong shared emotional experience. Rimé and Páez argue that collective effervescence is a high-intensity collective emotional state formed when individuals participating in collective activities experience shared emotions with mutual activation and continuous amplification [1]. It typically appears in large-scale collective activities as a strong positive emotional experience [22]. This experience is triggered when individuals can express their collective identity and feel intimacy with other participants. Pizarro et al. emphasize that core features of this experience include convergence of attention, emotion, and behavior [12]. These features collectively prompt participants to experience emotions beyond the ordinary, thereby enhancing emotional resonance and consistency with others. This activation of shared emotional experience forms the basis for collective effervescence's profound impact at both individual and collective levels. Notably, collective effervescence is not a specific emotion [12]; it involves both basic emotions and more complex emotional experiences such as awe and collective pride [1]. Although mostly associated with positive emotional arousal, it may relate to negative emotional arousal in specific contexts. For example, in sad events (such as mourning rituals), deep grief interactions and resonance among individuals may form collective effervescence, identical to that produced at festive banquets [12][14]. Gabriel et al. emphasize that negative group behaviors can also produce collective effervescence, though they occur less frequently [8][23], such as in disasters or terrorist attacks [24]. In other words, collective effervescence is not about the type of emotion aroused but about the sharing of emotion.

From the cognitive perspective, collective effervescence is viewed as a process of perceived emotional synchrony. Páez et al. argue that the formation of collective effervescence is a process of social synchronization across multiple dimensions—cognitive, emotional, and behavioral [6]. This social synchronization includes cognitive synchronization (such as shared understanding of group symbols), emotional synchrony, and movement synchronization, with perceived emotional synchrony being the core element. Researchers have operationalized collective effervescence as individuals' shared perception of mutual entrainment, coordination, and synchronization of emotional experiences in groups, and have developed scales for perceived emotional synchrony [6][25]. When individuals perceive emotional synchrony with others, this experience significantly enhances belonging and identity, while also increasing collective efficacy [6] and social connection [26].

From the perspective of social integration and self-expansion, collective effervescence manifests as a psychological experience combining connection and sacredness. When people in collective activities experience a feeling of connection with others in the group and a sense of contact with something larger than the self, they experience collective effervescence [14]. Gabriel et al. understand collective effervescence as individuals' experience of connection and sacredness, and based on this, developed a collective effervescence scale [8]. The process of collective effervescence is also often viewed as a psychological transformation where individuals move from ordinary states into a sacred, transcendent experience—self-transcendence [1]. This experience is not only closely related to belonging but also reflects individuals' connection with larger social collectives [27][28].

1.2 Distinctions Between Collective Effervescence and Collective Emotion, Kama Muta, and Flow

Collective effervescence is not entirely equivalent to collective emotion. von Scheve proposes that collective emotion is the emotional convergence of two or more individuals toward specific events or objects, emphasizing its attribute as a shared psychological state [29][30]. Goldenberg et al. focus on its dynamic nature, considering it a macro-level emotional dynamic pattern formed when multiple individuals respond to the same situation [31]. Thonhauser, based on a collective analytical framework, suggests that collective emotion is the product of a collective dynamic self-organizing system, emphasizing that collective emotion is not a simple superposition of individual similar emotions but an emotional state collectively experienced by group members [32]. Chung et al. argue that collective emotion is an interpersonal emotional pattern formed through mutual influence and interaction among individuals within a group, with three core features: emotional consistency, solidarity, and common consciousness [16]. From these connotations of collective emotion, it is evident that collective effervescence is indeed based on collective emotion but does not encompass all emotions involved in it. The collective emotion in collective effervescence, while also a shared emotional state among group members, is of higher intensity and exhibits continuous enhancement effects [1] as well as feelings of connection and sacredness [8].

Using the common example of square dancing in Chinese daily life, even bystanders or passersby who join the dance can feel the group's shared positive emotions, which may be amplified when music and dance rhythms peak. However, this is not collective effervescence. Square dancing capable of producing collective effervescence has ritualistic characteristics: participants have admission criteria, know who participates and who is excluded, activities have fixed times, locations, personnel, and positioning arrangements, and the dance performance is a collective achievement that shapes a "sacred world" for participants. If this "sacred world" is offended, dancers integrated with this scene will view the offense as personal, generating resistance or even retaliation [33].

Pizarro et al. found that kama muta is closely related to collective effervescence [12]. Kama muta, derived from Sanskrit meaning "moved by love," refers to the emotional experience when communal sharing relationships (CSRs) suddenly intensify [34]. This intensification includes strengthening existing relationships, establishing new ones, or recalling relationships, such as love confessions, pet adoption, or individual or collective nostalgia [35]. Fiske et al. argue that whether conscious or not, experiencing sudden intensification of communal sharing relationships through observation, recall, thought, and imagination is a necessary prerequisite for kama muta [35]. As a unique shared emotion, kama muta typically contains positive affect, motivating individuals to actively seek such emotional experiences. It manifests with physiological reactions such as teary eyes and bodily chills, and can motivate people to strengthen, repair, and maintain relationships and moral commitment. It is often triggered in everyday accidental situations through showing kindness to others and providing social support (such as being kind to strangers), and can also be evoked in various cultural practices and rituals (such as weddings and award ceremonies) [34][36]. In contrast, Rimé and Páez argue that collective effervescence has broader emotional connotations, including kama muta [1]. Notably, the communal sharing relationships in kama muta include not only person-to-person relationships but also relationships with deities, animals, the universe, and other non-human entities [35]. Thus, the relationships involved in collective effervescence are only part of the communal sharing relationships in kama muta. Therefore, while collective effervescence and kama muta have overlapping domains, they cannot substitute for each other.

There is an interesting connection between collective effervescence and flow [6], particularly group flow. Group flow refers to the shared flow experience generated among members while performing interdependent tasks [37], representing a team's peak state experience [38]. Interactive synchrony plays a key role in forming group flow [39]. Specifically, group flow depends not only on behavioral synchronization and coordination among members [40] but also requires members to achieve shared perception of group resources and efficacy [41]. Unlike collective effervescence, group flow is essentially a group optimal experience [1][42], with its core being collaborative efficiency enhancement rather than emotional resonance. Therefore, group flow mostly occurs in collaborative tasks such as team sports and artistic creation.

Table 2 [TABLE:2] Comparison of Collective Effervescence with Related Concepts

Concept Core Features Situational Characteristics Representative Research Collective Effervescence A shared emotional state involving basic and complex emotions; experiencing a sense of sacredness and connection Religious, secular rituals, and everyday life scenes Rimé & Páez, 2023; Pizarro et al., 2022; Gabriel et al., 2017, 2020 Collective Emotion A macro-level interpersonal emotional dynamic pattern; core features include emotional consistency, group solidarity, and common consciousness Various group activities von Scheve, 2011; Goldenberg et al., 2020; Thonhauser, 2022; Chung et al., 2023 Kama Muta A specific shared emotion accompanied by positive affect and physiological reactions (tears, chills); motivation to strengthen relationships Everyday situations, various cultural practices and rituals (helping others, watching touching movies, interacting with animals, weddings, etc.) Fiske et al., 2019; Fiske et al., 2025 Group Flow Essentially a group optimal experience; emotion is not key; requires interactive synchrony, common goals, high skill integration Team sports, artistic creation, work collaboration Csíkszentmihályi, 1990; Hackert et al., 2022; Sawyer, 2006; van den Hout et al., 2018

2. The Occurrence Process and Elements of Collective Effervescence

Durkheim's research found that tribal life exhibits a cyclical pattern alternating between "profane world" and "sacred world"—that is, the alternation between everyday life and collective life [14]. "Sometimes people divide into independent small groups, scattered across their respective territories; each family fends for itself, hunting or fishing, doing whatever is necessary to obtain essential food. At other times, conversely, people concentrate in specific locations for assemblies lasting several days or even months." (p. 296). Collective effervescence often emerges during collective activities, distinguishing these two life patterns. Through participation in collective activities and shared behavioral expressions of common emotions, individuals continuously interact to generate collective effervescence, achieving transformation from the profane world to the sacred world. However, Durkheim did not specifically elaborate on the generation process and its elements. Addressing this issue, social psychology researchers have constructed models of collective effervescence elements to reveal its psychological components and conditions. Additionally, some studies have drawn upon social identity theory to explain associated cognitive elements, embodied cognition theory to analyze embodied imitation and behavioral synchronization, and emotion theory to systematically elaborate the emotional dynamics in collective effervescence.

2.1 Generation Elements and Conditions of Collective Effervescence

Pizarro et al. argue that Durkheim's theory posits that when people gather, individual co-presence and interaction trigger cognitive changes where individual consciousness is gradually replaced by group consciousness; members' behaviors then converge, generating collective emotion; this emotion continuously strengthens and merges through interaction, ultimately producing collective effervescence [12].

Within Durkheim's theoretical framework, Páez et al. constructed a six-element model of collective effervescence, proposing that its occurrence requires activating six elements: gathering in specific time and space; shared focus or goals that mutually reinforce each other as events develop; consistent responses to group symbols; concentration of attention on goals; behavioral synchronization through group imitation or coordination; and synchronized behavior promoting mutual coordination of emotional expression, aligning each participant's state with the group state [6]. These six elements work together to prompt participants to experience and express similar emotional states, thereby generating collective effervescence. Empirical research has supported this model [43]. Subsequently, Wlodarczyk et al. further summarized the model elements into three conditions: people gathering together and being aware of each other's presence, focusing attention on common symbols, and intentional coordination or behavioral synchronization [25].

Additionally, Rimé and Páez introduced a stage analysis framework, supported by empirical evidence, summarizing collective effervescence generation as shared mental states (guided by symbolic signs), homogeneous expressions, group consciousness, emotional transmission and mutual amplification, until reaching a high-intensity state called "effervescence" [1]. This is an evolutionary process where participants' emotional experience intensity continuously rises in groups. This theory expands the processual dimension of collective effervescence, highlighting the progressive characteristics of emotional experience intensity, providing a more detailed dynamic elaboration of the generation process.

2.2 Dual Transformation of Cognition and Relationships in Collective Effervescence Generation

Some scholars use social identity theory to explain the occurrence of collective effervescence. Social identity refers to individuals' awareness of belonging to a social group and the resulting emotional and value significance [44]. Subsequently, Turner proposed self-categorization theory (SCT) to extend social identity theory, arguing that when people integrate into a group sharing common characteristics or goals, they have already engaged in self-categorization, internalizing group characteristics as their own traits, gradually completing the transformation from individual consciousness to group identity [45]. This identity transformation forms the basis of group behavior. Based on this, Hopkins et al. argue that collective effervescence generation involves dual transformation of cognition and relationships [22]. At the cognitive level, group members' shared knowledge, experiences, and values form a common reference frame. When facing an event, they understand and interpret its meaning based on this common reference frame. At the relationship level, shared identity makes individuals aware that other group members are also part of "us," experiencing intimacy among each other, thereby enhancing positive experiences and prosocial behavior [22][46]. During this process, group members may also promote behavioral coordination and the construction of group values and norms.

With the growth of individualism and the popularization of computer-mediated communication, the forms of collective effervescence generation in secular society have changed. McCaffree and Shults's theory of distributive effervescence argues that collective effervescence is no longer generated through traditional forms but through individuals' brief, intermittent interactions with diverse others in diverse environments [47]. Individuals' social identity becomes more flexible and diversified during this process to adapt to changing social environments and interaction partners. They argue that increased heterogeneity among individuals and novelty of social environments help generate collective effervescence, thereby promoting social cohesion formation. Distributive effervescence theory does not emphasize relationships between individuals but focuses on collective effervescence generation in the transient, diverse, and flexible social identities of the current digital intelligence era. It should be noted that existing research shows that shared subordinate relationships in group activities are not necessary conditions for collective effervescence generation [48], but collective effervescence is stronger when relationships exist among individuals [4].

2.3 Embodied Imitation and Synchronized Actions in Collective Effervescence Generation

Gallese's embodied simulation theory posits that multiple mirror neuron matching systems coordinate individuals' experiential knowledge about self and others' bodies, generating resonance states when facing others' intentional behaviors [49]. In social situations, the body (such as facial or limb movements) can serve as contextual cues influencing individuals' emotional perception and behavioral patterns [50][51]. Therefore, convergence among individuals in collective effervescence may be influenced by embodied imitation.

For example, in fire-walking rituals, audiences and fire-walkers show dynamic convergence in heart rate [4]. That is, collective effervescence may involve audiences exhibiting shared arousal patterns with fire-walkers through embodied imitation. In traditional folk parades in some European regions, hundreds or thousands of residents wear historical military uniforms, singing traditional songs together and drumming collectively, creating collective effervescence experiences [6]. Experimental research shows that when participants perform rhythmic movement tasks and observe another participant's actions, their movements spontaneously synchronize with the observed person, and this synchronization is modulated by environmental factors [52]. Therefore, in social situations, action behaviors may become coordinated and synchronized intentionally or unintentionally. Kearney found through case analysis that joint action is a prerequisite for collective effervescence [48]. Related research also shows that shared focused attention and behavioral synchronization are key factors in collective effervescence [25], and synchronized actions can significantly promote collective effervescence generation [53][54][55]. Additionally, Saraei et al. used wearable device monitoring technology to find that participants in collective rituals show synchronization in physical movement and physiological indicators, maintaining dynamic consistency with both ritual leaders and nearby individuals [56].

2.4 Emotional Changes in Collective Effervescence Generation Process

Both Durkheim's classic theory and psychological models of collective effervescence emphasize that it is a special collective emotional state whose core lies in emotional transmission and resonant amplification. Unlike individual emotions that quickly stabilize after repeated similar stimulation, collective emotions exhibit group-level characteristics such as emotional convergence, intensified experience, and emotional cascading [31]. Specifically, in collective situations, emotional interactions among individuals form resonance, causing emotional intensity to show a spiral upward trend and ripple-like diffusion effects. Experimental research finds that in face-to-face interactions, collective emotions transmit from high-intensity members to low-intensity members, promoting emotional convergence and continuously strengthening emotional intensity through cyclical accumulation [57]. Thus, dynamic changes in individual emotions are significant for collective effervescence formation. If individual emotions exist as static superpositions without transmission and amplification in interaction, it would be difficult to break through individual emotional boundaries to form a collective effervescence state.

Current researchers have analyzed the internal mechanisms of emotional contagion, emotional convergence, and continuous amplification in collective effervescence generation. Appraisal theory of emotion posits that emotions stem from actors' "interpretations" of situations, behaviors, or events that are relevant to the actors [58]. von Scheve proposes that the cognitive basis of emotional arousal lies in the consistency and coordination between appraisal content and motivation; when appraisal content and motivation converge and appraisal results show convergence, similar or identical emotions emerge among individuals, facilitating collective effervescence formation [29]. Emotional contagion theory suggests that in daily life, people often intentionally or unintentionally imitate or repeat others' facial expressions, body movements, and other nonverbal representations, ultimately achieving emotional state convergence with others [59]. Xygalatas et al. found through quasi-experimental design that emotional contagion occurs in collective rituals, and this contagion may result from multiple mechanisms such as automatic imitation, shared attention, or cognitive processing of situational information [60]. Although these theories increase our understanding of emotional convergence and transmission, they still cannot explain how individual emotions are amplified in social situations.

Wang Zuojun et al.'s evaluation-confirmation-amplification model indicates two scenarios in emotional appraisal: individual emotions are amplified when confirmed by others, otherwise not; emotional confirmation requires three conditions: consistent emotional states between individual and others, same emotional target, and certain cognitive motivation [61]. This model further clarifies the amplification effect of group-shared emotions, explaining the process of emotional interaction and amplification in collective effervescence. However, in real collective effervescence situations, once emotions are triggered and amplified, they persist for some time. During this process, emotional contagion may spread through multidirectional interaction networks, causing individual emotional intensity to show spiral upward tendencies [62]. In this context, Liu Chunxiao et al. propose that in collective rituals, individuals can generate group identity through self-stereotyping and self-anchoring pathways; the shared identity formed thereby drives individual self-transformation toward relational self or social self, making individuals more psychologically inclined to accept group characteristics, enhancing emotional imitation effects, and expanding emotional transmission scope and duration [63].

2.5 Theoretical Element Structure Framework of Collective Effervescence

The above review presents multiple theoretical perspectives in current psychology on collective effervescence. The six-element model and stage analysis framework of collective effervescence systematically construct psychological mechanisms of cognitive triggering, behavioral homogenization, and emotional contagion, convergence, and amplification through dynamic interactive development, providing a holistic framework for understanding collective effervescence occurrence. Social identity theory explains the cognitive construction process of member identity, common goals, and group consciousness during collective effervescence. Embodied simulation theory explains the mechanism of behavioral homogenization among individuals. Emotion appraisal theory, emotional contagion theory, and the evaluation-confirmation-amplification model elaborate on the dynamic emotional change process during collective effervescence generation. Based on the cognitive, behavioral, and emotional dimensions involved in these theories, this study summarizes the element framework of collective effervescence generation mechanisms in Figure 1 [FIGURE:1].

Figure 1 [FIGURE:1] Element Framework of Collective Effervescence Generation Mechanisms

Notably, collective effervescence events generally exhibit periodic characteristics, but current theoretical frameworks only explain single-event generation processes, focusing primarily on bottom-up formation mechanisms. The path dependency effects in periodic collective effervescence (stemming from previous experiences) differ significantly from single-event generation mechanisms, and theoretical construction and empirical testing of these differences await in-depth exploration. Moreover, existing theoretical research focuses on offline real situations, while digital technology popularization has created large-scale online interaction scenarios. Whether the dissolution of embodied co-presence (i.e., absence of physical face-to-face interaction space) and enhanced digitally mediated interaction affect key elements of collective effervescence generation, and whether formation mechanisms produce different paths, remain questions to be explored.

3. Situational Characteristics of Collective Effervescence

3.1 Situational Features

First, collective effervescence typically occurs in specific temporal and spatial contexts. Examples include specific times (such as the lunar New Year period during Spring Festival) and spaces (such as squares and streets where celebrations are held) for festival celebrations, venues and event times for large-scale sports events [64], and venues and times for music festivals [65]. Temporally, collective effervescence can be either periodic or temporary. Periodic collective effervescence often has a long history, with activities repeated at fixed times, typified by collective rituals and festival celebrations. For example, the Magh Mela Hindu festival in northern India is an annual large-scale pilgrimage attracting millions to the Ganges. Among them, kalpwasis—a special group—pursue the pilgrimage experience of "ananda" (sublime bliss) through jointly practicing strict ascetic rituals, which researchers consider a manifestation of collective effervescence [22]. Temporary collective effervescence typically has sudden or temporary backgrounds and purposes, most prominently protest demonstrations such as the 2017 London March for Science [66] and the August 2020 demonstrations [13].

Spatially, collective effervescence can occur not only in offline real situations but has also extended to virtual space under the digital wave. In online contexts, people create collective participation atmospheres through real-time interactions such as online comments and live-stream bullet comments. Naidu et al. propose that collective effervescence can occur even without others present, becoming a potential mechanism enabling individuals to feel socially connected while isolated [67]. Even when participating individuals are physically separated in space, shared collective emotions drive social synchronization of relevant groups, stimulating another form of collective effervescence [24][66]. Garcia and Rimé verified collective effervescence theory online by analyzing digital traces of 62,114 Twitter users after the Paris terrorist attack [24]. Gabriel et al. also found that individuals can feel connection with absent others [8]. Mitchell et al.'s experimental research shows that online shared attention to others' physical or social pain can indirectly promote cohesion and interpersonal intimacy through collective effervescence [68]. Additionally, during the COVID-19 pandemic, community collective effervescence phenomena crossed 25 countries via networks [69].

3.2 Group Factors

Collective effervescence is typically accompanied by the presentation of group symbols. Rimé and Páez argue that group symbols such as flags, logos, slogans, or specific clothing in group contexts can guide people to form shared identity and group identification [1]. Zumeta et al. found that specific behaviors or gestures in demonstrations (such as raising hands to form triangles) and specific symbols (such as purple identification symbols) collectively embody and strengthen group values and identity [13].

The intensity of collective effervescence is also affected by group size and density. Collective effervescence typically appears in large-scale or intense collective activities, with sizes ranging from hundreds to even millions of people [48][66], but it may also appear in small-scale group activities in daily life, such as family sales gatherings of 6-19 people [70]. Experimental research shows that collective effervescence is higher in large group sizes than in small ones [53]. In large concerts, increased crowd density is associated with stronger emotional responses in collective effervescence [71].

3.3 Individual Factors

In addition to the aforementioned influencing factors, individual factors also affect collective effervescence, such as individuals' collective effervescence experiences and personality traits. Research shows that higher frequency of religious ritual participation is associated with stronger collective effervescence experiences [17]. This experience is not only related to recent collective effervescence experiences, having cumulative effects, but individuals with higher collective effervescence tendencies are more susceptible to frequency of experiences [21]. Additionally, collective effervescence is positively correlated with agreeableness, extraversion, openness, and conscientiousness, but not with neuroticism [8][72]. In special activity contexts, collective effervescence may also relate to gender and age. For example, in Women's Day protest activities, younger people and women show higher collective effervescence [13].

4. Positive Psychological Effects of Collective Effervescence

Whether in collective rituals or secular life, the generation of collective effervescence brings positive effects [73]. At the individual psychological level, collective effervescence has multiple positive effects, mainly including positive emotional experiences, satisfying belongingness needs, and promoting mental health. At the group psychological level, collective effervescence also has important functions, mainly manifested in promoting group identity, enhancing group cohesion, and constructing and strengthening group norms.

4.1 Individual Psychological Effects of Collective Effervescence

In collective effervescence states, individuals can not only obtain positive emotional experiences in groups but also continuously feel positive emotional gains after leaving the group, including enhanced strength, confidence, and openness to others [24]. Although shared, convergent, and coordinated emotional states may contain negative or contradictory components, emotional synchrony typically amplifies emotional intensity, thereby stimulating the "joy of being together" [13]. When individuals participate in collective activities and experience collective effervescence, their hearts often gain peace, feeling transcendence and happiness. Different from everyday life, collective effervescence provides a deep satisfaction and joy beyond the individual. In collective activities, participants support each other, and concentrated interaction further promotes positive collective emotions [74].

Haidt et al.'s "hive hypothesis" proposes that humans occasionally need to "lose themselves" in larger social groups, a process enabling individuals to obtain higher levels of happiness and connection [27]. Research finds that successful collective gatherings typically enhance participants' positive emotions, self-esteem, and efficacy [6]. Additionally, collective effervescence can trigger positive self-transcendent emotional experiences [12][25].

Collective effervescence can satisfy belongingness needs. Research shows that humans have evolved complex psychological mechanisms that actively drive them to seek social interaction to avoid isolation [75][76]. Satisfying belongingness needs not only promotes social integration but also enhances well-being. When individuals feel connected with others in groups, they often have better experiences [77]. Gabriel et al. found that collective effervescence can not only satisfy relational needs but also significantly reduce loneliness while enhancing belongingness [8][21]. Like Harlow's classic experiment finding that infant monkeys could obtain psychological comfort from cloth substitutes [78], humans can also satisfy belongingness through social surrogates or symbolic social connections [23]. Although these symbolic connections provide indirect belongingness satisfaction, their efficacy may have limitations compared to direct social interaction in collective effervescence. However, the rise of virtual social worlds enables individuals to partially continue collective effervescence experiences when real-world social interaction is insufficient, meeting individual belongingness needs through online interaction.

Collective effervescence significantly promotes mental health. According to Durkheim, collective effervescence can give people courage to cope with daily challenges, enhance adaptability, and thereby promote well-being and personal development [14]. Current empirical research confirms this view. Studies find that collective effervescence is significantly positively correlated with mental health [6] and can enhance individuals' sense of meaning in life [21]. Wlodarczyk et al. also show that collective effervescence predicts higher levels of positive emotions and psychological well-being [25]. Active participation in collective activities is not only a natural social tendency but also has profound impacts on mental health and well-being [75][79]. In collective activities, shared cognitive and emotional experiences can significantly enhance individual well-being and hope [80]. In large-scale group activities such as pilgrimages, interaction with large groups significantly improves participants' well-being while alleviating unhealthy symptoms [81]. Additionally, nostalgia for collective effervescence events can rekindle this emotional experience, thereby promoting mental health long-term or periodically [11].

Notably, collective effervescence is not limited to rare intense situations or rituals with serious purposes. Durkheim believed that even in daily life, when individuals' associations with events or purposes are weak, universal collective effervescence can still occur [14]. Research shows that watching sports events can trigger collective effervescence, thereby enhancing Chinese residents' well-being [82]. Gabriel et al. found that small everyday activities such as watching movies, participating in classroom discussions, or even activities with little interest can produce weak collective effervescence [8]. Although weaker than large-scale activities, this weak experience still has important psychological significance for health and happiness.

The above research on collective effervescence reveals two types of psychological effects in different contexts: on one hand, intense group activities significantly enhance individual well-being through emotional connection and deep social interaction; on the other hand, everyday small activities gradually enhance individual mental health through cumulative effects. This dual-effect framework not only helps understand how collective events promote mental health but also provides important theoretical support for exploring the psychological significance of everyday social activities.

4.2 Group Psychological Effects of Collective Effervescence

Collective effervescence can promote group identity. According to social identity theory, during collective effervescence, group consciousness replaces individual consciousness, showing reduced self-focus, enhanced social orientation, and self-other overlap. Rimé and Páez emphasize that collective effervescence enables individuals to break away from self-centered states in daily life and integrate into broader social connections [1]. Research shows that higher levels of collective effervescence are not only associated with stronger group identity but also enhance individuals' experiential openness [83]. Participating in collective emotional activities not only strengthens identification with other participants but also consolidates broader social identity [84] and identity fusion [13]. Additionally, research finds that collective effervescence cultural practices can promote community consciousness [85].

Collective effervescence can enhance group cohesion. Research shows that collective rituals can significantly enhance participants' identity fusion [54][86]. Wlodarczyk et al. demonstrated through two quasi-experimental and longitudinal studies that collective effervescence can significantly enhance social cohesion, collective self-esteem, and positive collective beliefs [73]. Positive emotions mediate the relationship between collective effervescence and interpersonal cohesion, while self-transcendence mediates between collective effervescence and social cohesion and transcendent beliefs. Zabala et al.'s semi-longitudinal and quasi-experimental research shows that participating in collective effervescence activities can effectively enhance social cohesion, rebuild social trust, and strengthen personal and collective efficacy [43]. Fiske's joint sociality model posits that group members experience strong social connection and community feeling through jointly participating in rituals and celebrations [87]. This strong social bond and sharing are not only the core of collective effervescence enhancing group cohesion but also partially alleviate negative impacts from painful and traumatic events [55][88][89].

Collective effervescence can construct and strengthen group norms. Research shows that emotional synchrony is an important predictor of perceived social norms, and ritual participation indirectly affects norm perception through emotional synchrony [55]. Durkheim pointed out that through rhythmic, orderly collective actions (such as rhythmic gestures and chants), people can achieve emotional synchrony and group harmony, thereby coordinating values and beliefs commonly held by social members and facilitating group norm formation [25]. Research finds that collective rituals can not only enhance self-efficacy through collective effervescence but also motivate group members' moral commitment to common values, group leaders, and social norms [6][12][90]. Castro-Abril et al.'s research on protest activities shows that collective effervescence generated in social movements can stimulate individuals' cognitive creativity and promote dynamic reconstruction of group values [91].

Although collective effervescence is a transient state, when embodied as symbols or sacred objects of group solidarity, it can produce more lasting effects [92]. This sense of sacredness or experience of contacting group values is often a latent outcome of successful collective rituals [25]. In collective activities, participants obtain positive emotional feedback by practicing values and norms consistent with their social identity, thereby further strengthening group belongingness and value identification.

5. Summary and Prospects

In recent years, psychological research attention to collective effervescence—a universal and important socio-psychological phenomenon—has been continuously increasing. This paper specifically demonstrates the traditional and contemporary significance of collective effervescence from aspects of occurrence process and psychological elements, situational characteristics, and positive psychological effects. However, we still know little about collective effervescence, with many issues remaining to be resolved.

5.1 Exploring Collective Effervescence Phenomena in Different Contexts Combined with Reality

First, in-depth exploration of collective effervescence phenomena in everyday collective activities is needed. Although Durkheim's research on primitive religious rituals focused on sacred and serious-purpose collective ceremonies, it implicitly contained theoretical space for everyday collective activities nurturing collective effervescence. He believed that secularized collective effervescence could evolve from religious attributes into public carnivals accessible to all: "Commemorative ceremonies gradually become collective effervescence in the ordinary sense; they are merely public merriment, no longer having any religious nature, and everyone can participate without any scruples." [14]. Current research proves Durkheim's public carnival thesis, with collective effervescence occurring in various collective contexts in secular life, such as weddings [93], watching sports competitions [94], festival tourism theaters in Dong villages [95], concerts [96][97], and theatrical performances [98].

Contemporary social structures and lifestyles determine that psychological research on collective effervescence should focus on everyday collective activities. Research needs to be cautious about arbitrarily expanding the connotation and extension of collective effervescence and avoid using single elements to represent it. As described in the opening paragraph about the concert with tens of thousands of participants, the resulting collective effervescence phenomenon is a relatively brief continuous enhancement and upsurge of collective emotion, with the generated connection and sacredness dissipating as the concert ends. How to understand this instantaneous rather than periodic collective effervescence is a question Durkheim did not answer. Based on the aforementioned theories and research, this paper suggests that research on collective effervescence in everyday collective activities can be considered and designed within the element framework outlined in Figure 2 [FIGURE:2].

Figure 2 [FIGURE:2] Psychological Model of Collective Effervescence in Everyday Collective Activities

Second, online collective effervescence phenomena and their occurrence mechanisms need to be investigated. As mentioned earlier, collective effervescence generation transcends the condition of "physical co-presence," breaking through spatiotemporal limitations. In cross-temporal online collective effervescence, behavioral synchronization is weakened due to lack of physical contact, while emotional synchronization needs to be achieved through language communication, visual symbols, and group-shared cultural memory. However, current research has limited understanding of its occurrence mechanisms, and differences between online and offline mechanisms remain unclear. As emphasized earlier, the core mechanism of collective effervescence's psychological process is the continuous amplification effect of subjective emotional experience and its external expression [1]. Collective emotions can be generated and regulated through online interaction, and emotional expression plays a key role in virtual community sustainability and vitality [99]. Therefore, emotional expression and perception methods may be the main reasons for mechanism differences between online and offline collective effervescence. In contrast, emotional expression in online contexts relies on text information and emoticons, while emotional perception depends more on individuals' subjective interpretation and evaluation of text, and this interaction's indirectness and delay may weaken emotional synchrony depth and intensity. Research shows that compared with virtual emotional events, members in real events have higher and more consistent physiological arousal [100]. Thus, online collective effervescence may not fully replace real interpersonal interaction in emotional depth and long-term psychological effects. However, online contexts break through spatiotemporal limitations, possessing longer emotional continuity and diffusivity, providing new possibilities for collective effervescence effects' widespread dissemination and alleviating individual loneliness. Meanwhile, explaining online collective effervescence occurrence mechanisms helps grasp group psychological change characteristics and deeply understand current group phenomena (such as bullet comment carnivals and online violence). Therefore, future research needs more investigation into online collective effervescence generation mechanisms and their differences from offline collective effervescence effects.

5.2 Revealing Top-Down Psychological Mechanisms in Periodic Collective Effervescence

In collective effervescence, there are two psychological mechanisms: "bottom-up" and "top-down" [63]. However, current theoretical and empirical research mostly focuses on bottom-up processes, with insufficient attention to top-down convergence paths. Rimé and Páez propose that collective effervescence may induce emotional convergence through more complex top-down processes (such as language or symbolic signs) [1]. Some researchers believe that cultural customs facilitate large-scale collective emotion transmission and validate expected emotions [30]. Particularly in periodic collective effervescence events, such as traditional festival celebrations, emotional memories related to collective emotional experiences and established group norms guide participants to adjust emotions during preparation stages, thus presenting top-down convergence states. Additionally, nostalgia as an emotional experience can evoke psychological retrospection of shared experiences through collective memory, strengthening emotional experiences and enabling individuals to feel collective effervescence again [11][101]. Although some research has noticed these phenomena, top-down psychological mechanisms in collective effervescence remain unclear and require future exploration.

5.3 Expanding Multidimensional Psychological Effects of Collective Effervescence

Current empirical research focuses on positive aspects of collective effervescence but explores less of other psychological effects, such as negative impacts and cultural psychological effects. Therefore, future research needs to examine negative effects of collective effervescence. Durkheim (pp. 296-301) reminds us that collective effervescence has dual effects: it may bring positive experiences but also lead to loss of self-constraint, triggering irrational behavior [14]. As Festinger et al. argue, group environments may cause loss of individual self-identity, inducing antisocial behavior [102]. Zimbardo further emphasizes that group anonymity, lack of social constraints, and sensory overload promote aggressive and antisocial behavior [103]. In related empirical research, collective emotion also shows dual effects. For example, when victims of collective violence participate in mourning rituals, feelings of injustice and grief may intensify, but social support and helping intentions are enhanced [104]. Based on this, future research, while deeply exploring positive effects, needs to further analyze potential negative impacts and their triggering conditions, which is crucial for understanding group behavior patterns and effectively preventing negative group phenomena.

Additionally, collective effervescence is closely connected with social culture, carrying key social-psychological and cultural functions, yet current exploration of its cultural psychological effects remains insufficient. Collective effervescence activities are often accompanied by specific cultural symbols and signs that are continuously reinforced during group interaction processes, thereby deepening group members' identification and belongingness with collective culture [13]. Taking Spring Festival as an example, red couplets carry New Year wishes, firecrackers symbolize driving away evil and welcoming the new, and on the reunion dinner table, fish symbolizing abundance and tangyuan symbolizing reunion all contain profound cultural heritage. When family members sit together, toasting and laughing, they generate group emotional resonance and cultural identity, helping promote the intergenerational inheritance of excellent traditional Chinese culture and family culture. Additionally, with globalization and cross-cultural communication waves, collective effervescence may become a key medium for cultural exchange and integration (such as the Olympics and World Cup). Although collective effervescence may play important roles in cultural inheritance and exchange, questions remain: what cultural psychological effects does it trigger, what are its generation paths, and how do these differ from mechanisms promoting mental health? These issues await resolution.

5.4 Exploring Application Paths of Collective Effervescence

Collective effervescence can effectively promote individual mental health and enhance individuals' ability to cope with life challenges in real life. Notably, collective effervescence generation is not limited to positive, celebratory scenes but can also play an emotional regulation role in certain special environments. For example, participating in commemorative ceremonies or public mourning activities can enhance emotional connections among social members through sharing intense emotions like anxiety and sadness, thereby forming strong social cohesion [100][105]. Walby and Cole found that by organizing collective activities, prisoners in prisons can experience collective effervescence in prosocial behaviors, forming positive emotional feedback, thereby alleviating psychological pressure and improving negative emotions [106]. This indicates that collective effervescence still has potential and application value for promoting mental health in closed, high-pressure environments. Therefore, future research can explore more positive psychological practice directions for various groups from the collective effervescence perspective.

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Author Contribution Statement:

Duan Ying: Data collection, paper writing and revision

Yin Keli: Research question and idea formulation, paper revision