The Communication Effects of Counter-Stereotypical Advertising: Antecedents, Mechanisms, and Outcomes

HOU Min¹, ZHANG Peizhen¹, LI Zhiwen¹, GU Chunmei¹, LI Fangzhou²
(¹ School of Business Administration (MBA School), Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou 310018, China)
(² Graduate School of Business and Commerce, Kansai University, Osaka 564-8680, Japan)

Abstract: As consumers increasingly prioritize diversity and equality, counter-stereotypical advertising has emerged as a significant practice in marketing and advertising communication. However, existing research lacks systematic integration of the dynamic mechanisms underlying counter-stereotypes and their variations across media contexts. By integrating marketing's SOR (Stimulus-Organism-Response) theory with the ADO (Antecedents-Decisions-Outcomes) analytical framework, this study systematically examines the communication effects of counter-stereotypical advertising while clarifying the "double-edged sword" nature of counter-stereotype interventions and identifying threshold effects in message acceptance. The research emphasizes media differences in counter-stereotypical advertising effectiveness, revealing distinct patterns of media compatibility between traditional and new media channels. Future research should explore how counter-stereotypes can mitigate social prejudice, assess the impact of artificial intelligence applications on advertising communication, and promote interdisciplinary collaboration in counter-stereotype research.

Keywords: counter-stereotype, advertising communication, media marketing, SOR theory, ADO framework

As winter gives way to spring, Harbin in Heilongjiang Province continues to capture public attention. The term "Southern Little Potatoes," which went viral last year, has become a distinctive nickname for tourists from southern China. This label stems from a long-standing regional height stereotype—that northern Chinese adults are significantly taller on average than their southern counterparts—a physiological difference transformed into the group label that "southerners are short." Consequently, many netizens view "Southern Little Potatoes" as linguistic discrimination and stereotyping. Similarly, Blue Moon faced intense backlash last year for a laundry detergent advertisement released before Mother's Day that read, "Mom, you use it first," accompanied by text stating "Make laundry easier, more effortless, and more worry-free for mothers." The ad reinforced the traditional Chinese notion that "women should bear more household responsibilities," which many perceived as stereotyping mothers and women. International brands are not immune to such pitfalls: Apple's promotional video filmed in Thailand and posted on YouTube sparked outrage among Thai citizens. The advertisement depicted airports, transportation, clothing, and accommodations using outdated 1990s imagery, while its sepia-toned filter conveyed a sense of backwardness and obsolescence. Netizens accused the ad of distorting Thailand's image and perpetuating stereotypes about the country. Such examples are countless, and each incident triggers heated debates about stereotyping. Indeed, the issue of stereotypes has long attracted widespread academic attention (Dong et al., 2023). Stereotypes represent a crucial factor influencing individual cognition and affect numerous aspects of human production and life (Gocłowska et al., 2013; Wang, 2021).

Stereotypes often lead to prejudice, ignore individual differences, and hinder objective and fair evaluation of individuals or groups. If left uncorrected, they may evolve into discriminatory behavior (Howard, 2000). In response, scholars have dedicated themselves to understanding and developing measures to counteract the negative effects of stereotypes. This effort has given rise to the concept of counter-stereotypes, sparking another wave of research (Von Hippel et al., 2001; Liu & Zuo, 2006; Pang et al., 2011; Hu et al., 2022).

Previous research indicates that stereotypes are a form of social cognitive bias—social cognitive structures built upon fixed perceptions, beliefs, and expectations about specific groups (Fiske & Neuberg, 1990). Counter-stereotypes refer to phenomena that contradict or conflict with stereotypes (Zuo et al., 2019; Tan et al., 2024). Scholars have explored and conceptualized counter-stereotypes from various perspectives. For instance, Liu and colleagues define counter-stereotypes as behaviors or information inconsistent with people's expectations, demands, and general views regarding a social group's behavior and personality traits (Liu & Zuo, 2006). Other researchers view counter-stereotypes as expressions where an individual's cognitive perspective (i.e., perceived behaviors or characteristics) about a social group conflicts with or opposes that group's mental model (Leicht et al., 2017). Wittenbrink et al. propose that counter-stereotypes refer to characteristics exhibited by group members that are inconsistent with or opposite to stereotypes, as well as mismatched contexts (Wittenbrink et al., 2001). Building on this foundation, this paper defines counter-stereotypes in advertising communication as "advertisements presenting behaviors or information that conflict with consumers' stereotypical cognitive frameworks formed based on social groups, aiming to challenge固化 role expectations and group characteristics within social culture."

The importance of counter-stereotypes in marketing primarily manifests through their influence on consumer cognition and behavioral responses. Existing research has found that counter-stereotypes can affect consumer stereotypes (Lai et al., 2014), stereotypical emotions (Prati et al., 2015), cognitive flexibility (Leicht et al., 2017), advertising responses (Leicht et al., 2017), product evaluations (Debevec & Iyer, 1986; Noseworthy et al., 2011; Chu et al., 2018), and product choices (Ramasubramanian & Oliver, 2007; Ramasubramanian, 2015). As research has deepened, counter-stereotype practices have advanced considerably. Initially, marketers attempted to use counter-stereotypes to increase acceptance of counter-stereotypical products (e.g., men's cosmetics) with some success. Subsequently, counter-stereotypes have been applied more frequently in advertising and marketing, increasingly leveraging new media channels. Notable examples include Dove's "Real Beauty" campaign and Unilever's "Unstereotype" initiative, both aimed at eliminating gender stereotypes in advertising and achieving remarkable results. These cases vividly demonstrate the significance of counter-stereotypes for marketing practice, particularly advertising communication.

In the new era, breaking stereotypes to interpret brand connotations has become an important marketing tool, making research on the mechanisms of counter-stereotypes particularly necessary. However, existing research in consumer behavior has not been systematically reviewed. Therefore, this paper examines previous counter-stereotype research based on real marketing contexts, comprehensively employing SOR (Stimulus-Organism-Response) theory (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974) and the ADO (Antecedents-Decisions-Outcomes) framework (Paul et al., 2021) to systematically review and comprehensively analyze the communication effects of counter-stereotypical advertising. This analysis clarifies the "double-edged sword" characteristics of counter-stereotype strategies and identifies threshold effects in message acceptance. Additionally, by summarizing the characteristics of traditional and new media in advertising communication, this paper reveals media compatibility differences in counter-stereotypical advertising. Finally, integrating existing research, the paper outlines future research directions from three perspectives: threshold balancing in counter-stereotypes, interdisciplinary integration, and exploration in the artificial intelligence era.

2. The Research Framework for Counter-Stereotypes

Unlike previous studies that relied on single perspectives, this paper attempts to comprehensively and systematically review research progress on counter-stereotypical advertising effects using SOR theory.

SOR theory, originating from environmental psychology, proposes explaining consumer behavior through three dimensions: Stimulus, Organism, and Response (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974), and represents an important theoretical foundation in marketing. SOR theory suggests that after receiving external environmental stimuli, individuals experience a series of psychological fluctuations, subsequently producing avoidance or approach behavioral responses (Li et al., 2020). Through the causal chain of "stimulus-psychology-behavior," this theory can explain the generation mechanisms of antecedents, processes, and outcomes in counter-stereotypes.

Therefore, this paper comprehensively reviews the communication effects of counter-stereotypical advertising based on SOR theory and maps the SOR framework for counter-stereotype review (as shown in Figure 1 [FIGURE:1]).

Source: Compiled by the authors.

2.1.1 Advertising Spokespersons

Advertising spokespersons represent a widely applied strategy in product or brand promotion (Money et al., 2006) and serve as an important vehicle for counter-stereotype strategies. Their identity characteristics and disruptive image design can directly challenge consumers' stereotypical cognition. This paper explores the stimulating effects on counter-stereotype formation from two aspects: spokesperson characteristics and types.

Spokesperson characteristics constitute important factors affecting advertising effectiveness (Zhang & Zhang, 2010), including gender, age, weight, and occupation. Among these, gender is one of the most controversial core dimensions in counter-stereotypical advertising (Wang & Guan, 2024). In the past, brands typically selected spokespersons whose gender matched the product's user group, with women endorsing cosmetics and men endorsing razors considered natural (Peirce, 2001). However, research has found that when spokesperson gender deliberately mismatches a product's traditional gender association, consumers may develop positive advertising attitudes due to cognitive conflict (Xia et al., 2024), breaking stereotypical perceptions of gender-spokesperson fit. Beyond gender, spokesperson characteristics such as age, occupation, and weight can also trigger counter-stereotypes through "attribute-product" mismatches. For example, younger (vs. older) spokespersons endorsing senior brands can reconstruct consumer cognition by subverting age-ability stereotypes (Huber et al., 2013), thereby increasing purchase intention. Ordinary spokespersons (vs. sports celebrities) endorsing sports advertisements can enhance consumers' positive attitudes by improving the processing fluency of advertising information through process simulation (Chang & Chen, 2022). Research on larger-bodied (vs. smaller-bodied) spokespersons endorsing high-calorie products has found no significant difference in purchase intention through meaning transfer and cognitive matching (Westover & Randle, 2009; Huber et al., 2013). The common mechanism underlying these strategies lies in: triggering cognitive conflict through attribute mismatch, forcing consumers to shift from intuitive to analytical processing, and subsequently reconstructing normative cognitive frameworks (Garst & Bodenhausen, 1997; Prati et al., 2015), thereby producing positive or negative effects on advertising effectiveness.

Spokesperson types significantly influence counter-stereotypical advertising effectiveness. Traditional marketing concepts often implicitly assume that spokespersons with high social status and greater social distance can more effectively convey credible information and drive purchases (Schimmelpfennig, 2018; Chang & Chen, 2022). This cognition tightly binds endorsement effectiveness to power distance, suggesting that celebrities and experts with higher social distance are more persuasive due to their halo effect. However, research reveals a more complex picture: for functional (search) products, studies show that consumers may prefer celebrity endorsements, aligning with traditional reliance on celebrities as "professional trust endorsers" (Han et al., 2022). Yet other research indicates that in certain contexts (e.g., emphasizing product practicality and real-world connections), the smaller social distance between influencers and ordinary consumers can effectively stimulate advertising's functional appeal, thereby activating consumers' realistic self-identity and trust, producing more positive advertising effects (Shi et al., 2021; Nie et al., 2024). This seemingly contradictory conclusion fundamentally challenges the single stereotype that "celebrity endorsements are more authoritative and effective." It demonstrates that spokesperson persuasiveness does not absolutely depend on external authority halos; low-social-distance, high-affinity spokespersons (such as influencers) can also establish effective persuasion paths in specific contexts. This breaks the traditional cognitive framework that equates endorsement effectiveness entirely with spokesperson social status. Similarly, virtual spokespersons are often considered naturally less persuasive than human endorsements due to the "uncanny valley effect" and lack of "authenticity" (Song et al., 2024; Wang, 2024; Teng et al., 2025). However, research shows that meticulously designed virtual humans with "flaws" (such as freckles) can significantly narrow or even reverse the perceived gap in authenticity and persuasiveness compared to real human endorsements, thereby enhancing advertising evaluation (Song et al., 2024). This finding not only addresses the inherent assumption that virtual spokespersons struggle to appear as human-like figures due to the uncanny valley effect but also directly challenges the stereotype that "non-human equals lack of authenticity and persuasiveness." Analysis of studies producing counter-stereotypical conclusions reveals common mechanisms with spokesperson characteristic effects: breaking consumers' inherent cognition through conflicting features and reconstructing cognitive patterns through rationalized narratives (Noseworthy et al., 2014; Prati et al., 2015).

The above research demonstrates that spokesperson characteristics and types significantly influence counter-stereotypical advertising effectiveness through attribute mismatch-induced cognitive conflict, showing notable differences and context dependency. Gender mismatch design in emotional products generates positive effects by triggering moderate cognitive conflict, stimulating consumers' novelty and acceptance willingness (Xia et al., 2024); however, when applied to functional products, it may trigger negative reactions due to credibility concerns (Wang & Dong, 2022). Virtual spokespersons compensate for authenticity perception through "flaw design," achieving effect reversal across product categories and enhancing product evaluation (Song et al., 2024); influencer endorsements boost consumers' realistic self-identity through social proximity in practicality-emphasizing scenarios, generating positive effects (Nie et al., 2024), but may suffer from insufficient professionalism and reduced persuasiveness in high-authority-demand situations.

2.1.2 Advertising Content

Advertising content design challenges consumers' stereotypical cognitive frameworks through narrative style and product strategy. Traditional views hold that positive emotional narrative styles can stimulate positive brand evaluations (Wang et al., 2019), while negative emotional narrative styles more easily generate negative consumer reactions (Dens & De Pelsmacker, 2010), creating a stereotypical binary opposition in consumer groups. However, increasing numbers of consumers are willing to pay for tea beverage brands that emphasize negative emotions in advertising. Research shows that brands with negative emotions can gain consumer favor through emotional resonance, translating into more positive purchase intentions (Lu et al., 2022), thereby breaking the stereotype that directly links advertising emotional polarity with outcome polarity.

Advertising product strategy constitutes an important component of advertising content. In product strategy, particularly packaging color application, opportunities exist to challenge stereotypes. Traditional marketing practice often assigns specific gender or social role associations to colors (e.g., pink for women, blue for men) (He et al., 2011), associations that easily solidify into color stereotypes targeting gender groups. However, counter-stereotypical marketing attempts to break these color label constraints. Research shows that in products targeting male consumers, strategic use of traditionally "feminine" colors (such as pink or purple) can also obtain positive advertising evaluations if they align with brand tone or convey specific emotions (such as sophistication or individuality) (Del Giudice, 2017; Chang & Chen, 2022). This directly challenges the stereotypical cognition that "specific colors can only be used for specific gender group products," deconstructing the inherent binding between color and gender roles.

In summary, counter-stereotypical design at the content level—such as negative narratives and color innovation—can produce positive effects when anchored to target groups' emotional needs or brand tone; however, when detached from specific contexts, it may trigger negative reactions. This reflects that when consumers encounter advertising content inconsistent with traditional thinking, they undergo a process of "stereotype deconstruction—new cognitive schema construction," simultaneously triggering emotional responses, breaking inherent thought patterns, and reconstructing advertising content value.

2.1.3 Advertising Format

With the rapid development of mobile internet, scholars increasingly focus on interactive advertising formats (Wu, 2007; Li & Yao, 2022). Traditional views suggest advertising should emphasize "emotional interaction" to narrow psychological distance with consumers and generate positive advertising effects (Wu, 2007). However, ample evidence indicates this depends on specific contexts. For instance, strong emotional interaction without adequately activating consumers' own emotional foundations can reduce consumer evaluation (Han et al., 2024). This conclusion reveals that over-reliance on emotional interaction strategies in contexts without sufficient emotional activation may trigger cognitive defense, thereby weakening advertising effectiveness. It uncovers the boundary conditions of emotional appeals in counter-stereotypical advertising communication, breaking consumers' stereotype of "universal effectiveness of advertising emotional interaction strategies."

Virtual Reality (VR) advertising represents an advertising format that applies VR technology in marketing activities, using VR technology as an advertising medium for communication (Duan, 2018). Traditional views hold that VR advertising's experiential value stems from visual stimulation (Brengman et al., 2022), forming a stereotypical expectation that "technological media only serves a single sense," assuming that close-range sensory experiences like hearing and taste cannot be delivered through VR. However, through multisensory design combining scent and sound, VR technology has been proven capable of simulating human multi-channel perception, significantly enhancing consumer recognition of technological authenticity and thereby improving advertising effectiveness evaluation (Coelho et al., 2019; Brengman et al., 2022). This finding challenges the stereotypical cognition of "VR technology experience limitations," showing that in new technological contexts, consumer advertising experiences have achieved breakthroughs from static to dynamic and then to multi-sensory channels, providing empirical support for counter-stereotypical advertising applications in new technology fields.

Research on advertising contexts often cannot be separated from consumer cultural backgrounds and advertising media influences. In collectivist cultural contexts, counter-stereotypical advertising often emphasizes group harmony and intergenerational inclusion (Han & Shavitt, 1994), while in individualist cultural contexts, it typically advocates independence and competition (Zhang & Nelson, 2016). However, existing research lacks systematic analysis of how media contexts affect counter-stereotypical advertising communication effects. Therefore, this paper will subsequently focus on summarizing and discussing counter-stereotype research in traditional and new media contexts to identify media differences and compatibility issues in counter-stereotypical advertising communication.

2.2.1 Cognitive Processing Path

The Stereotype Content Model (SCM) posits that humans universally rely on warmth and competence as fundamental dimensions for cognitive simplification when rapidly evaluating specific social groups (Fiske et al., 2018). While this automated cognitive strategy that simplifies group information classification can improve decision-making efficiency, it easily solidifies and spreads stereotypes. The core strategy of counter-stereotypical advertising lies in presenting information that conflicts with consumers' stereotypical cognitive frameworks about specific social groups, forcing consumers to shift from intuitive processing reliant on stereotypes to deeper, resource-intensive analytical processing (Zuo et al., 2019; Wang & Dong, 2022). For example, when advertising spokespersons' gender, age, or occupational characteristics significantly deviate from traditional cultural positioning (stereotypes) of that group, consumers must expend more cognitive resources to resolve this social group cognition-level information conflict (Prati et al., 2015).

This cognitive effort manifests not only in information processing but also in individuals' active revision of their own stereotypes about specific social groups. Research shows counter-stereotypical information may be temporarily accepted as group exceptions through "special case strategies" (Santos et al., 2024) or reconstructed into new schemas through cognitive control strategies (Cui et al., 2019) to maintain original group stereotypes. For instance, consumers might categorize male cosmetics users as "professional actors" to preserve original gender cognition, but through repeated exposure to counter-stereotypical advertising, gradually accept the diversity of gender roles within that social group (Gill & Lei, 2018).

During this process, individuals' cognitive control strategies and implicit personality theories play crucial roles, particularly in processing stereotypical information. In high perceptual load situations (e.g., information-overloaded short video ads), individuals tend to rely on automated processing, and counter-stereotypical information challenging social cognition may be quickly filtered or ignored. In low perceptual load situations (e.g., immersive VR ads), consumers are more likely to process such information elaborately (Gasper & Clore, 2002). Individuals holding incremental theories are more willing to accept counter-stereotypical information because they believe group members' traits are malleable (Dweck & Leggett, 1988), whereas entity theory holders may resist information challenging their inherent social cognition due to cognitive rigidity (Blackwell et al., 2007).

Furthermore, social learning mechanisms play an important role connecting individuals and society in this pathway. Counter-stereotypical role models presented in advertising (e.g., female scientists, men taking childcare responsibilities) provide individuals with behavioral templates that challenge traditional group role expectations, promoting cognitive reconstruction of specific social groups (Ramasubramanian & Oliver, 2007). Traditional media strengthens counter-stereotypical information credibility through authoritative endorsement (Chen, 1998), while new media achieves cognitive penetration through algorithmic recommendations and User Generated Content (UGC) (Wang et al., 2024).

2.2.2 Emotional Activation Path

The emotional activation pathway focuses on how counter-stereotypical advertising influences consumer responses through emotional arousal and identity management. This pathway's complexity manifests not only in the diversity of emotional reactions but also in how it reflects the role of social group norms and identity boundaries in consumer psychology.

When counter-stereotypical information challenges or threatens core norms or role expectations closely associated with groups that individuals identify with, it may trigger strong defensive emotional reactions (Rudman & Fairchild, 2004). This emotional rejection is rooted in Social Identity Theory and stems from the psychological need to maintain group boundaries (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). For example, male audiences exposed to advertisements strongly subverting traditional "male breadwinner" gender roles (e.g., depicting "househusbands") may experience anxiety and disgust due to perceived threats to their gender group's traditional roles and status, potentially leading to advertising and brand boycott behaviors (Liu & Zuo, 2006; Åkestam et al., 2021). Similarly, members of obese groups may internalize society's negative stereotypes about body types after repeated exposure to "healthy weight" campaigns, leading to decreased self-esteem and increased depression risk (Richeson & Pollydore, 2002). This indicates that social prejudice can activate negative emotional responses toward specific groups through counter-stereotypical interventions.

However, counter-stereotypical information does not necessarily trigger negative emotions. Moderate cognitive conflict can activate positive emotions, thereby stimulating exploratory motivation (Prati et al., 2015). For example, virtual spokespersons' gender reversal designs create contrast that can trigger brief emotional impact while establishing emotional connections through narrative resonance (Zhu et al., 2022). Experiments show that counter-stereotypical advertising can stimulate consumers to actively analyze the nature of differences through a "cognition-emotion" chain reaction, thereby evoking curiosity and acceptance willingness (Zhu et al., 2015). This emotion-driven exploratory behavior is particularly significant in influencer live streaming. When hosts mitigate cognitive conflict through optimized communication (e.g., avoiding excessive self-praise), consumer trust and participation willingness significantly improve (Liu & Zhang, 2024), demonstrating the positive role of the emotional pathway in reconciling social cognitive conflicts.

Thus, emotional states play a dual role in the emotional pathway. Positive emotions (e.g., pleasure, curiosity) can enhance cognitive flexibility and promote deep processing of counter-stereotypical information. Research shows that positive emotions improve individuals' acceptance of new information by activating the prefrontal cortex (Ashby & Isen, 1999). Dolinski and Nir (2009) further found that people in positive emotional states are more inclined to think deeply about counter-stereotypical information, and this deep processing helps break traditional stereotypical frameworks. Conversely, negative emotions (e.g., anxiety, anger) may intensify cognitive closure and lead to information rejection (Jin & Hu, 2015). McCormick (2016) noted that men may experience anxiety when exposed to advertisements subverting gender roles due to threats to their gender identity, subsequently avoiding related products.

2.2.3 Dual-Path Interaction

Cognitive and emotional pathways do not operate in isolation but shape final outcomes through dynamic interaction. The intensity of cognitive conflict directly affects the polarity of emotional reactions. For example, moderate incongruity (such as products with innovative appearance but functional continuity) can balance novelty and acceptance, maximizing positive effects (Noseworthy et al., 2014), whereas extreme conflict (such as advertisements completely subverting gender symbols) may trigger emotional rejection due to cognitive overload (Damer et al., 2019). This interactive effect is moderated by cultural background, product type, and individual differences. In collectivist cultures, gradual strategies (e.g., emphasizing intergenerational inclusion) more easily achieve cognitive-emotional synergy (Han & Shavitt, 1994); innovative products require reduced conflict intensity to avoid cognitive load (Wang et al., 2024).

Media contexts can further amplify the interactive complexity of dual pathways. Traditional media triggers shallow cognitive reconstruction through symbolic narratives (He & Zhu, 2014) but limits emotional resonance through one-way communication. New media achieves deep cognitive-emotional integration through algorithmic adaptation (e.g., emotional content push) and multi-sensory experiences (e.g., VR advertising presence) (Gan et al., 2023). However, over-reliance on algorithms may create "information cocoons" that solidify stereotypes (Wang et al., 2021). Therefore, studying media differences in counter-stereotypical advertising communication becomes particularly important.

2.3.1 Positive Outcomes

Positive outcomes of counter-stereotypes concentrate on enhancing consumer cognitive flexibility, reducing prejudiced attitudes, increasing purchase intention, and promoting risk-taking decisions. Counter-stereotypes significantly impact cognitive domains, with improved cognitive flexibility being a core effect (Zeng et al., 2022). Research shows counter-stereotypes can prompt consumers to abandon rigid and structured thinking patterns, thereby promoting cognitive flexibility (Leicht et al., 2017). This flexibility enhancement helps people process information more openly and adaptively when facing stereotype-inconsistent information. For example, counter-stereotypical information can stimulate individuals to re-evaluate gender roles, thereby reducing gender stereotypes' impact on cognition (Leicht et al., 2017). Additionally, counter-stereotypes can affect working memory capacity because processing counter-stereotypical information requires more cognitive resources, which may influence consumer performance on specific tasks (Finnegan et al., 2015). These findings underscore the importance of counter-stereotypes in breaking traditional cognitive frameworks and promoting cognitive diversity.

At the attitudinal level, counter-stereotypes profoundly influence consumer attitude change. Research demonstrates that counter-stereotypes can effectively reduce individual stereotypical cognition and even decrease prejudice and discrimination (Lai et al., 2014). This attitude change extends beyond the individual level to affect entire groups' perceptions of specific products or services. Studies show that education and awareness campaigns about stereotypes can help reduce social prejudice (Crisp & Hewstone, 2007). Furthermore, counter-stereotypes can enhance purchase intention by stimulating consumer interest and curiosity in products (Ramasubramanian, 2011). These results indicate that counter-stereotypes play an important role in shaping consumer attitudes and promoting positive behavioral intentions.

At the behavioral level, counter-stereotype impacts manifest in influencing consumer behavior patterns and increasing risk-taking decisions. Research shows counter-stereotypes can prompt people to re-evaluate and adjust their behaviors when facing stereotype-inconsistent information (Ramasubramanian, 2015). This re-evaluation may lead to more open and inclusive behaviors, thereby reducing stereotype-based discrimination. For example, counter-stereotypical role displays in advertising can change consumer perceptions of products and brands, thereby influencing purchase behavior (Duker & Tucker Jr, 1977). Additionally, counter-stereotypes can increase customer-product interaction because counter-stereotypical information can stimulate curiosity and exploratory desire, thereby increasing product interaction and engagement (Leicht et al., 2017). These findings emphasize the importance of counter-stereotypes in promoting positive behavior and enhancing consumer participation.

2.3.2 Negative Outcomes

While counter-stereotype interventions aim to reduce prejudice by challenging inherent cognition, their effects are not entirely positive. Recent studies indicate that counter-stereotype strategies may trigger negative outcomes such as cognitive conflict, emotional rejection, and socio-cultural backlash (Richeson & Pollydore, 2002; Rudman & Fairchild, 2004; Damer et al., 2019).

Counter-stereotype strategies can cause cognitive conflict and emotional anxiety. When counter-stereotypical information strongly conflicts with consumers' existing cognitive frameworks, it may induce cognitive dissonance, leading to psychological discomfort and even behavioral avoidance (Song & Liu, 2014; Pounders, 2018). For example, when men encounter advertisements subverting gender roles (e.g., men endorsing cosmetics), they may experience anxiety due to threats to their gender identity (McCormick, 2016; Wang & Dong, 2022). Moreover, counter-stereotype interventions may inadvertently intensify group difference perception and exacerbate stigma internalization. Research shows that obese groups may internalize social prejudice after repeated exposure to "healthy weight" campaigns, leading to decreased self-esteem and increased depression risk (Pearl, 2020). Studies on mental health stigma also find that even when interventions attempt to eliminate prejudice against anxiety and depression, implicit cognition tests show negative associations remain difficult to eliminate and may even strengthen through repeated exposure to negative vocabulary (Cui et al., 2019).

Overly aggressive counter-stereotype strategies may trigger defensive reactions and emotional rejection from conservative groups. For example, advertisements subverting traditional gender narratives (e.g., "female breadwinner, male homemaker") may provoke resistance from audiences with traditional gender attitudes, thereby reinforcing their original stereotypes (Liu & Zuo, 2006; Åkestam et al., 2021). Even when organizations superficially implement counter-stereotype policies, implicit biases may persist through micro-interactions (Duker & Tucker Jr, 1977). This rejection essentially represents an immune response of social cognitive structures to counter-stereotypical information, with consistent core logic across domains: when stereotype-breaking behaviors challenge group cognitive frameworks, social systems may maintain the status quo through resource deprivation and attribution bias (Plaks et al., 2001). For example, in workplaces, employees with non-traditional gender images may encounter the "glass cliff" phenomenon—being assigned high-risk positions without adequate support, ultimately reinforcing negative stereotypes through failure (Pan et al., 2023). Educational research also finds that teachers' implicit biases toward counter-stereotypical students (e.g., women excelling in STEM) may cause evaluation bias and limit development opportunities (Jussim, 1991).

Counter-stereotype interventions also face limitations of "special case strategies" and risks of socio-cultural backlash. Counter-stereotypical information is often viewed as "exceptions" rather than universal phenomena, thus failing to shake overall cognitive structures. For example, consumers may perceive male cosmetics use as "professional necessity" (e.g., for actors) rather than challenging the "cosmetics = female" stereotype. This "special case strategy" paradoxically maintains original biases. Research finds that moderate incongruity design (e.g., appearance innovation with functional continuity) can stimulate interest, but completely disruptive products are easily rejected due to cognitive overload (Noseworthy et al., 2014). Additionally, cross-cultural studies show that counter-stereotype strategies must adapt to social norms. In collectivist cultures, advertisements emphasizing individual role-breaking may fail due to violation of group consensus and even trigger moral condemnation (Han & Shavitt, 1994). For example, Asian markets show significantly lower acceptance of "househusband" images than Western markets, and forced implementation may intensify cultural conflict, demonstrating the boundary conditions of cultural background in counter-stereotype interventions (Dweck & Leggett, 1988).

2.4.1 Threshold Effects of Counter-Stereotypes

Just as stereotypes contain positive components, existing research proves counter-stereotypes also contain negative components, with intervention effects showing significant "double-edged sword" characteristics. These two types of effects are not isolated; their interaction reveals the complexity of counter-stereotype strategies: moderate intervention can stimulate change, while excessive intervention triggers backlash. However, existing research mostly focuses on single effects, lacking systematic explanation of the dynamic relationship between "intervention intensity and effect" (Wen et al., 2020). Future research should focus on the information acceptance threshold effect exhibited by counter-stereotype intervention intensity and effect, exploring the "optimal stimulation interval" where appropriate external stimuli cause consumer cognition reversal, balancing information novelty with audience cognitive/emotional acceptance capacity to maximize positive effects (e.g., attitude change) while minimizing negative risks (e.g., cognitive overload). For example, product designs with innovative appearance but functional continuity (moderate incongruity) yield highest purchase intention, while completely disruptive designs show sharply decreased acceptance (Noseworthy et al., 2014). Notably, acceptance thresholds are influenced by multiple factors including cultural background, product type, and individual differences, requiring dynamic adaptation to specific contexts (Wen et al., 2025). For instance, in collectivist cultures, acceptance thresholds are lower (e.g., Asian markets are more sensitive to gender role changes) (Matthes et al., 2016; Roth-Cohen et al., 2023), requiring gradual strategies. Innovative products have lower acceptance thresholds than non-innovative products due to higher information complexity (Kim & Nam, 2004). Consumers with high cognitive flexibility or growth mindsets have higher acceptance thresholds and can accept more intense conflicting information (Dweck & Leggett, 1988). Future research can further explore the non-linear relationship and boundary conditions of counter-stereotype "intensity-effect."

2.4.2 Backlash Effects of Counter-Stereotypes

The intervention effects of counter-stereotypes are constrained not only by information acceptance threshold effects but also by potential backlash effects that highlight strategy implementation complexity. When intervention intensity exceeds audience cognitive or emotional acceptance thresholds, counter-stereotypical information may trigger psychological defense mechanisms, causing consumer attitude reversal, intensified socio-cultural conflict, and even strengthened original stereotypes.

Extreme conflict designs in counter-stereotypes (e.g., advertisements completely subverting gender symbols) may exceed consumers' cognitive processing capacity boundaries. According to the Need for Cognitive Closure theory, when information complexity exceeds individual cognitive resources, people tend to adopt simplification strategies to reduce uncertainty (Liu et al., 2007). This cognitive overload not only reduces advertising effectiveness but may also intensify consumer rejection of counter-stereotypical information (Cui et al., 2019). Moreover, if counter-stereotypes directly challenge core social identities (e.g., gender roles, cultural values), they may trigger defensive reactions (Liu & Zuo, 2006; Åkestam et al., 2021). Social Identity Theory posits that when group boundaries are threatened, individuals maintain identity stability by strengthening in-group preference or derogating out-groups (Turner et al., 1979). This requires particular attention in cross-cultural research (Zhang & Nelson, 2016).

3. Media Contexts for Counter-Stereotypical Advertising Communication

This paper adopts a nested SOR-ADO dual-theoretical framework to systematically analyze the complete path of counter-stereotypical advertising communication. Section 2, based on SOR theory (Stimulus-Organism-Response), focuses on consumer group-level "stimulus-psychology-behavior" mechanisms, revealing the micro-psychological processing mechanisms of counter-stereotypes. Section 3 introduces the ADO (Antecedents-Decisions-Outcomes) framework as an extension and expansion of SOR theory at the communication ecology level.

Counter-stereotype communication effects depend on media representation and channel selection (Galdi et al., 2023). However, existing research lacks systematic review of media contexts' role in counter-stereotypical advertising communication. Through the ADO framework, this paper examines how traditional and new media affect the "antecedents-mechanisms-outcomes" chain of counter-stereotypes via differentiated pathways (as shown in Figure 2 [FIGURE:2]), analyzing similarities and differences in strategy design, effect boundaries, and cultural adaptability. The two frameworks form a hierarchical progression from "group psychology to communication ecology": SOR explains how counter-stereotypical information is processed by consumers, while ADO addresses in which media ecology it is accepted or rejected. This integrated model compensates for single-perspective limitations and provides theoretical support for cross-media integrated marketing of counter-stereotypes.

The ADO framework includes Antecedents, Decisions, and Outcomes (Paul et al., 2021). Antecedents summarize causes of phenomena or behaviors, Decisions analyze the mechanisms determining whether phenomena or behaviors manifest, and Outcomes indicate further evaluations after phenomena or behaviors occur (Wang et al., 2023).

Figure 2 ADO Framework for Counter-Stereotypes in Media Marketing Advertising Communication

3.1 Counter-Stereotype Research in Traditional Media Marketing

Research shows that traditional media (e.g., television, radio, newspapers, books) advertising information is often constrained by stereotypes, with labels of "high authority, low innovation" limiting their status and competitiveness in the public mind (Bai, 2013). Cognitive psychology suggests human information processing takes two forms: intuitive and analytic (Epstein et al., 1992). Traditional media conforms to individuals' stereotypical information, often activating intuitive processing that automatically and inevitably triggers associated stereotypes (Ito & Urland, 2003) and reduces attention to product information (Rakić & Chambers, 2012). Additionally, psychological and consumer behavior research shows that counter-stereotypical information can prompt individuals to shift from automated, intuitive processing to more systematic and elaborated cognitive processing (Prati et al., 2015). This shift in cognitive processing helps strengthen deep processing of counter-stereotypical information, thereby effectively inhibiting automatic stereotype activation (Bartholow et al., 2006). Therefore, for traditional media marketing, adopting counter-stereotypical advertising methods is crucial for changing established perceptions and attracting target audiences.

Traditional media counter-stereotypical marketing practices support these views. For example, television advertisements challenge gender role stereotypes by presenting professional images of female scientists or male caregivers, attempting to use elite demonstration effects (Chen, 1998). Such advertisements rely on media authority to strengthen counter-stereotypical information credibility, but their effectiveness heavily depends on audience trust in traditional media (He & Zhu, 2014). Research finds that with authoritative media endorsement, counter-stereotypical information is more easily attributed to "social progress" rather than "individual exceptions" (Hewstone et al., 1994), thereby increasing cognitive reconstruction likelihood. Additionally, traditional media's linear communication model limits audience active participation, often reducing counter-stereotypical information to "labelized symbols." For example, newspapers' objective reporting on scientist group diversity (e.g., non-"nerd" images) (He & Zhu, 2014) can reduce stereotype intensity but lacks emotional activation pathways (Berger & Fitzsimons, 2008). This one-way nature results in shallow processing of counter-stereotypical information, making it difficult to trigger deep attitude change.

3.2 Counter-Stereotype Research in New Media Marketing

New media marketing refers to marketing methods that use information technology and digital means to achieve brand promotion, product sales, and customer relationship management objectives (Dai, 2020), including social networking platforms, live streaming, and short videos. With characteristics of diversity, high penetration, and strong interactivity, new media marketing can create synergies with existing marketing channels to achieve integrated communication effects difficult to realize through traditional models. Existing research shows that new media marketing expands consumer sensory modalities and behavioral experiences (Xu et al., 2021), which is significant for breaking stereotypes.

New media counter-stereotype research also follows the ADO framework but presents broader research perspectives than traditional media marketing. Based on the core distinction between information characteristics and presentation methods, this paper categorizes previous research into content attributes and format attributes (Paul et al., 2021) to explore counter-stereotype strategies in new media advertising communication (as shown in Table 1 [TABLE:1]).

Table 1 Counter-Stereotypes in New Media Marketing Advertising Communication

Content Attributes Format Attributes Gender (Male vs. Female) (Jiang et al., 2022) Short Video vs. Live Streaming vs. Social Media (UGC) Appearance (Typical vs. Atypical Occupational Appearance) (Dean, 2021) Video Frame Orientation (Horizontal vs. Vertical) Age (High-profile vs. Low-profile Elderly) Interaction Method (Real-time vs. Bullet-screen Interaction) Person Perspective (First-person vs. Third-person) Interaction Scale (Single vs. Multiple Participants) Narrative Emotion (Intensity Overload vs. Non-overload) Interaction Subject (Brand Self-broadcast vs. Endorser Live) Visual (Cool vs. Warm Colors) Interaction Intensity (High vs. Low) Auditory (Human vs. AI Voice-over) Technical Implementation Form Multimodal Integration (Text vs. Audio vs. Text+Audio) Algorithm Recommendation vs. KOL Collaboration vs. Platform Linkage (Ye et al., 2023) (Gan et al., 2023) (Cao et al., 2024) (Wen et al., 2025) (Wang et al., 2024) (Choi et al., 2025) (Li & Sun, 2024) (Liu & Zhang, 2024) (Feng et al., 2024) (Zou et al., 2023) (Han et al., 2024) (Qian et al., 2024)

Previous research has verified the universality of counter-stereotypes in new media marketing from multiple perspectives and theories. However,梳理 reveals a common underlying mechanism: the classification of new media marketing information into content and format attributes essentially represents a synergistic effect of "cognitive deconstruction—transmission optimization." Content attributes can reconstruct consumer cognitive schemas and effectively block automatic stereotype activation through innovative designs in role shaping, narrative reconstruction, and multi-sensory experiences. Format attributes optimize information transmission efficiency and emotional arousal through different media, interaction, and technological features, reducing cognitive defense. In fact, with technological development and deeper exploration, increasing research attempts to combine both approaches—triggering deep thinking through multi-dimensional content deconstruction (Cao et al., 2024) while achieving precise reach and immersive experiences through technological empowerment in format (Li et al., 2024; Qian et al., 2024)—ultimately forming a powerful new media marketing communication model.

In summary, new media has reconstructed the communication paradigm of counter-stereotypical advertising through diversity, interactivity, algorithmic adaptation, and massive User Generated Content on new media platforms. Its real-time feedback mechanisms and fragmented communication characteristics both expand information coverage and intensify effect uncertainty. First, new media platforms achieve personalized push of counter-stereotypical advertising through algorithmic analysis of user behavior data. For example, short video platforms match "first-person narrative + emotional content" based on user interest tags (Gan et al., 2023), reducing cognitive defense and improving acceptance. Empirical studies show that algorithm-driven counter-stereotypical advertising can effectively improve information reach efficiency, but over-reliance on algorithms may lead to "information cocoons" that reinforce existing biases (Wang et al., 2021). Additionally, new media like live e-commerce dynamically adjust counter-stereotypical information presentation through diverse interactions with audiences. For example, hosts mitigate cognitive conflict through communication optimization (e.g., avoiding excessive self-praise) (Liu & Zhang, 2024) or enhance emotional resonance through "social presence" (Gao et al., 2022). Finally, User Generated Content on social media dismantles authoritative discourse through grassroots narratives, forming bottom-up counter-stereotypical demonstration effects. For example, emojis enhance "perceived warmth" in utilitarian product reviews (Wang et al., 2018; Jiang & Zou, 2023), thereby improving counter-stereotypical information credibility. However, the fragmented nature of User Generated Content may also cause information distortion, such as "appearance fallacies" in influencer marketing (Li & Sun, 2024) that may undermine the seriousness of counter-stereotypical information.

3.3 Media Compatibility in Counter-Stereotype Communication

Traditional and new media exhibit both common pathways and differential characteristics in counter-stereotype marketing, mainly reflected in three aspects.

First, communication mode similarities and differences. Traditional media relies on authority and linear communication models to challenge stereotypes through elite demonstration effects (Chen, 1998), but its one-way communication limits emotional arousal and deep attitude change. New media reconstructs counter-stereotype communication paradigms through algorithmic adaptation, diverse interactions, and User Generated Content. However, new media's fragmented communication may undermine the seriousness of counter-stereotypical information, and over-reliance on algorithms may intensify "information cocoons" (Wang et al., 2021). Regardless of media context, information credibility is an important factor affecting advertising effectiveness (Krakow et al., 2018) and significantly influences counter-stereotype effects.

Second, interaction form similarities and differences. Traditional media interaction is limited to ratings and letter feedback, with weak real-time correction capabilities for advertising content. New media enables two-way real-time interaction through bullet screens and live streaming connections, dynamically adjusting conflict intensity (Liu & Zhang, 2024). Both can enhance consumer participation through interaction, but differences in feedback depth and speed make new media more proactive and flexible in counter-stereotype strategy adjustment.

Third, conflict intensity similarities and differences. Traditional media, due to weak interaction and slow adjustment, struggles to match high-conflict-intensity advertising information. Conversely, new media, with strong interaction and rapid adjustment, can match higher conflict intensity advertising information. However, both must follow information acceptance threshold effect principles to avoid negative effects from counter-stereotype backlash (Wen et al., 2020).

Therefore, this paper synthesizes previous research and proposes that counter-stereotype strategies require dynamic matching with media characteristics—that is, media compatibility differences exist. Traditional media suits high-authority, lower-conflict-intensity counter-stereotypical information (e.g., gender equality public service ads), triggering shallow cognitive reconstruction through symbolic narratives. New media suits high-interactivity, higher-conflict-intensity counter-stereotypical information (e.g., virtual spokesperson gender reversal), deepening attitude change through emotional resonance and user co-creation. This finding breaks through previous research's general discussions of media channels and provides theoretical foundations for precise communication and intervention of counter-stereotypes.

4.1 Summary

As consumers increasingly focus on diversity and social equity, counter-stereotypes have become an indispensable strategic tool in advertising communication. Based on the "Stimulus-Organism-Response" (SOR) theoretical framework, this paper comprehensively discusses the communication effects of counter-stereotypical advertising and uses the "Antecedents-Decisions-Outcomes" (ADO) framework to fully analyze counter-stereotypes in media marketing advertising communication. The paper reveals the "cognitive-emotional" dual-path interaction mechanism, acceptance threshold effects, and media compatibility characteristics of counter-stereotypes in advertising communication, providing new perspectives for theory and practice.

At the theoretical contribution level, this paper introduces the SOR theoretical framework into counter-stereotype research reviews, breaking through traditional single-discipline perspective limitations. By integrating psychology, sociology, and marketing theories, the research proposes that antecedents of counter-stereotypes can be categorized as synergistic effects of external stimuli (e.g., advertising spokespersons, content, format) and internal factors (e.g., individual cognitive styles, cultural backgrounds). Regarding mechanisms, the research reveals a "cognitive conflict-emotional arousal" dual pathway: counter-stereotypical information forces consumers to shift from intuitive to analytical processing by breaking the "warmth-competence" dimensions of the Stereotype Content Model (SCM); the emotional pathway triggers attitude change or behavioral avoidance by balancing surprise emotions and identity threats. Notably, by constructing the ADO framework, this paper finds that cognitive and emotional pathways do not operate in isolation, and their interactive effects are significantly moderated by media context—traditional media achieves shallow cognitive reconstruction through authority, while new media deepens emotional resonance through algorithmic adaptation and real-time interaction.

By reviewing existing research, this paper emphasizes the "double-edged sword" nature of counter-stereotypes. Moderate conflict design (e.g., products with innovative appearance but functional continuity) can maximize positive effects (e.g., enhanced cognitive flexibility, increased purchase intention), but excessive intervention may trigger cognitive overload or cultural backlash. Additionally, this paper proposes the "media compatibility" principle: traditional media suits low-conflict-intensity symbolic information, while new media better fits moderate-conflict immersive content, providing references for cross-media integrated marketing.

The research also systematically reviews negative outcomes of counter-stereotypes. Interventions beyond thresholds may not only cause consumer rejection but also intensify stigma internalization or social conflict. These backlash effects suggest practitioners must dynamically balance intervention intensity with cultural norms to avoid the trap of "counter-stereotyping for its own sake." Finally, by comparing traditional and new media communication effectiveness, this paper reveals media characteristics' profound impact on counter-stereotype strategies. Traditional media's one-way communication can strengthen information credibility through authority but struggles to trigger deep attitude change; new media's fragmentation and algorithmic recommendations expand coverage but may solidify prejudice through "information cocoons." Therefore, future counter-stereotype marketing must balance media authority, interaction intensity, and the grassroots power of User Generated Content (UGC) to achieve cognitive-emotional synergy optimization.

Overall, this research not only constructs a theoretical framework for counter-stereotypical advertising communication but also provides directions for its application in cutting-edge fields such as artificial intelligence and cross-cultural marketing. However, the complexity of counter-stereotypes requires academic and practical communities to continuously monitor their dynamic evolution, particularly in the dual context of technological empowerment and social value changes. How to achieve a balance between "breaking" and "building" remains a core proposition for future research.

4.2 Future Outlook

Current research on counter-stereotypical advertising communication has made significant progress, but under the dual background of accelerated technological iteration and diversified social values, its dynamics, boundary conditions, and interdisciplinary applications still offer vast exploration space. Based on the ADO framework and SOR theory constructed earlier, combined with core findings on media compatibility and information acceptance threshold effects, future research can deepen and expand in the following directions:

First, explore how to use counter-stereotypes to improve social prejudice and stereotypes, endowing counter-stereotypical advertising communication with deeper social significance. Previous sections revealed the "double-edged sword" characteristics of counter-stereotypes and the critical role of acceptance threshold effects, but how to quantify the non-linear relationship between intervention intensity and effects in specific contexts requires deeper investigation. For example, in cross-cultural marketing, collectivist societies (e.g., East Asian markets) show significantly lower acceptance thresholds for gender role changes than individualist societies (e.g., Western markets), a difference possibly stemming from cultural values' moderating effect on need for cognitive closure (Han & Shavitt, 1994). Future research can combine quantitative experiments with real advertising scenarios to explore multi-dimensional dynamic communication effect evaluation systems to more accurately capture counter-stereotypes' complex effects. For instance, using eye-tracking and neuroimaging technologies (e.g., fMRI) to dynamically monitor attention allocation patterns, cognitive load, and emotional fluctuations when different cultural audiences encounter counter-stereotypical advertising, constructing a quantitative model of "conflict intensity—cultural adaptability—behavioral response." Using social network analysis to study how counter-stereotypical advertising affects intergroup relationship structures and cognitive networks, evaluating its long-term potential for promoting social cognition. Additionally, given differences between traditional and new media communication characteristics, further exploration of threshold superposition effects in multi-media linkage is needed. For example, can traditional media's low-conflict symbolic narratives (e.g., female scientist public service ads) triggering shallow cognitive reconstruction (Banchefsky et al., 2016) combined with new media's algorithm-driven moderate-conflict content (e.g., virtual spokesperson gender reversal short videos) deepening emotional resonance (Mohan et al., 2022; Song et al., 2024) break single-media threshold limitations? Such research can provide precise strategies for global brands' counter-stereotypical advertising marketing. Meanwhile, existing research mostly compares media based on inherent attributes; future research must further examine how dynamically changing audience media usage habits reshape these differences, such as investigating how speed-watching and short video "swiping" habits affect audience attention to and comprehension depth of counter-stereotypical narrative clues.

Second, promote interdisciplinary collaboration in counter-stereotype research. Counter-stereotypes involve multiple disciplines including psychology, sociology, communication, and cultural studies. Promoting interdisciplinary collaboration not only helps deeply understand stereotype formation, dissemination, and change processes but also effectively explores how to use counter-stereotypes to improve social prejudice and stereotypes. In psychology, researchers focus on stereotype and prejudice formation mechanisms and how to change them through cognitive and emotional interventions (Ashby & Isen, 1999; Zhai et al., 2010; Prati et al., 2015). In sociology, scholars focus on how social structures and cultural environments shape stereotypes and prejudices, examining cognitive biases faced by diverse groups including social class differentiation (Harrits, 2019), racial differences (Gonzalez et al., 2021), and gender dimensions (Skočajić et al., 2020), while systematically exploring effective paths for social cognitive reconstruction through educational innovation and communication interventions (Pugh, 1998; Crisp & Hewstone, 2007; Skočajić et al., 2020). In communication studies, researchers focus on how to disseminate counter-stereotypical information through media and other channels, studying media's role in shaping and spreading stereotypes and how to use media to influence public cognition and attitudes (Luong & Knobloch-Westerwick, 2017; Galdi et al., 2023). In cultural studies, researchers focus on how stereotypes and prejudices manifest and affect different cultural contexts, exploring differences and conflicts between cultures and how to reduce stereotypes and prejudices through cross-cultural communication and cultural integration (Cheng, 1997; Shao et al., 2014). In summary, interdisciplinary collaboration in counter-stereotype research has achieved important results but still faces many challenges and issues. Future research can attempt to build joint experimental paradigms to strengthen interdisciplinary cooperation and communication. For example, using EEG technology to analyze neural coding features when consumers process counter-stereotypical information, while using Natural Language Processing (NLP) to mine emotional polarity in User Generated Content, thereby revealing multi-level mechanisms from "neural—behavioral—social" dimensions.

Third, explore the impact of counter-stereotype applications in artificial intelligence on advertising communication. Counter-stereotype applications in AI profoundly change marketing communication methods, injecting powerful momentum into marketing development. Recent research extensively focuses on counter-stereotype effects on AI's virtual images, voice, and algorithms, making substantial progress, but many issues remain for further exploration. For example, how to adjust AI virtual image anthropomorphism to enhance perceived authenticity and promote purchase behavior remains a major challenge (You & Liu, 2024). Future research should particularly focus on the role of different anthropomorphic images in emotional transmission, breaking the stereotype of single human figures as virtual spokespersons. Additionally, research proves that different AI gender voices matching product characteristics can produce positive effects (Li et al., 2024), but does not elaborate on the underlying mechanisms. Future research can subdivide product characteristics, explore internal mechanisms of different voice effects, and examine differences between AI voice persuasion and human persuasion under different product involvement levels, as well as compare differences between different persuasion styles, aiming to leverage voice counter-stereotype effects. Furthermore, while AI algorithmic bias has been shown by optimists to have positive effects on promoting organizational fairness (Forouzandeh et al., 2021), this conflicts with corporate innovation management. How to balance the conservatism and creativity of AI bias algorithms to better guide marketing activities is an urgent problem and a future research focus.

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