Preamble

Enhancing the Radiation Shielding Capacity of Calcium–Barium–Borate Glass Using Cement Dust: An Experimental Study

Mansur M Alqahtani¹, Abdulaziz A Alshihri², Yousef Alshumrani³, Wael Alshehri³, Khaled Alenazi⁴, Hosam M. Gomaa⁵, H.A. Saudi⁶, Atef Ismail*⁷

¹ Department of Radiological Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Najran University, Najran 61441, Saudi Arabia
² Department of Radiological Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia
³ Radiological Sciences Department, College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Saud University, P.O. Box 145111, Riyadh, 4545, Saudi Arabia
⁴ Pharaohs Higher Institute for Computer, Information Systems, and Management, Giza, Egypt
⁵ Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University (Girls' Branch), Nasr City, 11884 Cairo, Egypt
⁶ Physics Department, Al-Azhar University, 71524 Asyut, Egypt

Abstract: This study investigates the structural, physical, and gamma-ray shielding properties of a borate-based glass system modified by varying amounts of cement dust (0–20 wt.%). Five glass samples were prepared using the fast quenching method and characterized through bulk density measurements and Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. FTIR analysis confirmed the characteristic borate glass network, with bands attributed to BO₃ and BO₄ units, and revealed structural changes in the BO₃/BO₄ ratios. The bulk density increased from 2.756 to 3.036 g/cm³ as the cement content increased. Gamma-ray shielding capabilities were assessed using experimental and theoretical attenuation parameters across photon energies ranging from 0.081 to 1.332 MeV. Results showed improved linear attenuation coefficients and decreased half-value layer (HVL) and mean free path (MFP) with increasing cement dust content, confirming enhanced shielding performance. Additionally, the glasses exhibited strong radiation protection efficiency (RPE), particularly at low energies (up to 76% attenuation at 81 keV), and competitive neutron removal cross-sections (0.195–0.2148 cm⁻¹), surpassing conventional materials like concrete and graphite. The findings suggest that incorporating cement kiln dust into borate glass systems not only improves radiation shielding properties but also supports sustainable recycling of industrial waste.

Keywords: Borate Glass, Cement Kiln Dust (CKD), Gamma-ray Shielding, FTIR Spectroscopy, Sustainable Materials

Corresponding author: Mansur Alqahtani (Ismail1@minister.com)

1. Introduction

Recycling industrial waste represents a vital goal of sustainable development, contributing to reduced environmental pollution, conservation of natural resources, and promotion of efficient material utilization. Rather than disposing of industrial by-products through harmful practices such as landfilling or incineration, these wastes can be transformed into valuable raw materials for new industrial applications, thereby supporting the circular economy and enhancing environmental efficiency \cite{1-2}. With rapid industrial expansion generating substantial quantities of solid and airborne waste—including cement dust, slag, and fly ash—innovative technologies are needed to integrate these materials into value-added products such as construction materials, industrial glass, ceramics, and advanced composites \cite{3-4}. This approach demonstrates commitment to environmental sustainability by reducing carbon footprints, minimizing reliance on virgin raw materials, and ensuring balanced relationships between industrial growth and ecological preservation. Utilizing industrial waste in applications such as glass manufacturing, eco-friendly bricks, or sustainable concrete serves as a practical model of sustainable development in action \cite{5-6}.

The increasing demand for sustainable materials has driven extensive research into industrial waste recycling, with incorporation into glass matrices emerging as a particularly promising approach. Oxide glass technology offers a versatile platform for immobilizing hazardous or non-biodegradable materials due to the structural flexibility and chemical durability of glass systems \cite{7-8}. Cement dust, a common waste generated during cement manufacturing, poses significant environmental and health concerns if not properly managed. It typically contains oxides such as SiO₂, Al₂O₃, Fe₂O₃, CaO, and MgO—components integral to conventional glass formulations. This compositional similarity makes cement dust an attractive candidate for glass production, allowing it to act as either a partial raw material replacement or functional modifier. Incorporating cement dust into oxide glass systems reduces the environmental footprint of industrial operations while enhancing functional properties such as mechanical strength, chemical resistance, and radiation shielding capacity \cite{9-10}. Borate-based glasses are particularly suitable due to their low melting temperatures and excellent dopant solubility, making them ideal hosts for integrating complex waste materials like cement dust. This study investigates the potential of utilizing cement dust as an additive in calcium–barium–borate glass systems to assess its impact on structural integrity and radiation shielding performance, transforming an industrial waste product into a value-added material aligned with circular economy principles \cite{11-12}.

The calcium–barium–borate glass system is highly valuable in materials science due to its structural flexibility, chemical durability, and potential for functional enhancements. Boron oxide (B₂O₃), the primary glass former, offers a low melting point and excellent dopant solubility, enabling formation of a stable glass network that accommodates various modifying oxides and waste materials \cite{13-14}. Calcium oxide (CaO) contributes to improved mechanical strength and chemical resistance, while barium oxide (BaO), with its high atomic number, enhances density and optical properties, particularly the ability to shield against ionizing radiation. These features make the system suitable for radiation shielding applications, especially when modified with heavy-metal-containing industrial waste like cement dust \cite{14-15}. The open structure of borate glass allows incorporation of complex waste compositions without compromising stability, aligning with sustainable development goals by promoting waste recycling and reducing environmental impact. Additionally, the system exhibits favorable thermal behavior and optical characteristics, making it attractive for advanced engineering applications. Overall, the calcium–barium–borate matrix provides a robust platform for developing environmentally friendly, high-performance glass materials \cite{15-16}. In this context, this study aims to investigate the feasibility of incorporating cement kiln dust (CKD) as a partial substitute for B₂O₃ in calcium–barium–borate glass systems and evaluate the structural, physical, and radiation shielding properties of the resulting glasses to promote sustainable, high-performance materials for environmental and engineering applications.

2. Experimental Work

A set of five glass samples was prepared using the fast-quenching method from melting point to room temperature according to the chemical formula: 25 wt.% CaO + 15 wt.% BaO + (60-x) wt.% B₂O₃ + x wt.% cement dust, where x = 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20. Complementary techniques were employed to examine the optical and structural characteristics of the prepared samples. FT-IR absorption spectra were collected using a Nicolet-6700 spectrometer. Sample density was determined using Archimedes' principle with toluene as the buoyant medium.

The schematic diagram of the experimental setup is shown in Figure 1 [FIGURE:1]. The present investigations employed a well-balanced narrow-beam transmission geometry to measure linear attenuation coefficients across the gamma-ray energy range of 0.081–1.332 MeV using radioisotopes ¹³³Ba, ¹³⁷Cs, and ⁶⁰Co. A NaI(Tl) (2″ × 2″) scintillation detector measured the gamma-ray spectrum transmitted through glass samples. The gamma-ray spectrometer achieved 6.5% accuracy at 662 keV. Incident (I₀) and transmitted (I) photon intensities were measured without and with the target sample in the photon beam path. To validate the experimental geometry, the linear attenuation coefficient of a lead test sample was measured at 662 keV.

The linear attenuation coefficient of the absorber is given by the Beer-Lambert law (Eq. 1), where I₀ and I are transmitted intensities without and with the absorber, respectively, and t is the absorber thickness (cm). The half-value layer (HVL) can be obtained using Eq. 2, while mass attenuation coefficient (MAC) for multi-element materials like glass was calculated using the weighted sum of constituent elements' coefficients (Eq. 3), where (μ/ρ)ᵢ is the MAC for the ith element and wᵢ is its weight fraction. Radiation shielding efficiency is defined by Eq. 4. The ability of an absorber to attenuate fast neutrons is measured by the effective fast neutron removal cross-section (∑R, cm² g⁻¹), defined as the probability that a fast neutron undergoes a single collision and is removed from the uncollided neutron population. Eq. 5 was used to calculate FNRCS (∑R), where ρᵢ and (∑R/ρ)ᵢ are the fractional density and mass removal cross-section of the component, respectively.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1 FTIR Vibration Absorption

The FTIR spectra of glass samples S1 to S5, shown over the wavenumber range of 4000–400 cm⁻¹, reveal typical features of borate glass structures (Figure 2 [FIGURE:2]). A broad, intense absorption band appears between 1300 and 800 cm⁻¹, corresponding to stretching vibrations of B–O bonds in BO₃ and BO₄ structural units \cite{17}. Additional peaks near 1000–1100 cm⁻¹ are attributed to asymmetric stretching of BO₃ triangles or B–O–B linkages, while bands between 700 and 500 cm⁻¹ correspond to bending vibrations of B–O–B units and possible contributions from metal–oxygen bonds such as Ba–O and Ca–O. A weaker, broad feature around 3400 cm⁻¹ may arise from O–H stretching vibrations, indicating hydroxyl groups or adsorbed moisture \cite{18-20}.

Across all five samples, similar overall spectral shapes indicate a consistent glassy network. However, slight variations in peak intensities and positions suggest structural modifications induced by gradual cement dust incorporation (x = 0–20 wt.%). These variations likely reflect changes in borate network connectivity, particularly the BO₃/BO₄ ratio, resulting from substitution of B₂O₃ with oxides present in cement dust such as SiO₂, Al₂O₃, and Fe₂O₃. Despite these changes, the absence of new crystalline peaks suggests the glass matrix remains amorphous, with cement dust successfully integrated without phase separation \cite{19-21}.

3.2 Bulk Density

Figure 3 [FIGURE:3] shows the experimental density values for the glass system: 25 wt.% CaO + 15 wt.% BaO + (60–x) wt.% B₂O₃ + x wt.% cement dust (x = 0, 5, 10, 15, 20). Density increases progressively from 2.756 to 3.036 g/cm³, demonstrating the substantial impact of cement dust incorporation on structural and compositional properties. At 0 wt.% cement dust, the density of 2.756 g/cm³ is typical for borate-based glasses with moderate alkaline earth modifier content. As cement dust content increases, density rises almost linearly to 3.036 g/cm³ at 20 wt.%.

This behavior results from replacement of B₂O₃ (density ~2.46 g/cm³) with heavier, denser oxide components in cement dust (SiO₂, Al₂O₃, Fe₂O₃, CaO), which contribute greater atomic mass and enhance network connectivity or packing efficiency. Added CaO and Al₂O₃ can occupy interstitial positions, reducing free volume and increasing overall density \cite{21}. The linear increase suggests cement dust incorporation does not significantly disrupt glass formation within this substitution range, instead integrating well to enhance structural compactness without inducing devitrification or excessive phase separation. These findings confirm the feasibility of using cement kiln dust as a partial substitute for conventional glass formers in borate systems, supporting sustainable materials development by recycling industrial waste into value-added glass products for construction, radiation shielding, or other engineering applications where higher density is advantageous \cite{21-25}. The densification is particularly beneficial for radiation shielding, as higher-density materials offer improved attenuation of ionizing radiation, making the modified glass system promising for environmentally sustainable shielding applications.

3.3 Gamma-Ray Shielding Characterizations

Measured and calculated gamma-ray attenuation results were used to plot various attenuation relationships across the entire energy range and compared with theoretical calculations. Accurate derivation of attenuation coefficients requires precise sample thickness and density data. Theoretical values were obtained using the state-of-the-art XCOM database and WinXCom software, which employ the mixture rule to calculate partial and total mass attenuation coefficients for elements, mixtures, and compounds at standard photon energies. Five gamma-ray energies were used: two from Ba-133 (0.081 and 0.356 MeV), one from Cs-137 (0.662 MeV), and two from Co-60 (1.173 and 1.332 MeV).

By analyzing gamma-ray spectra transmitted through absorbers of specified thickness, the attenuation capabilities of the glass samples were examined at these photon energies. Figures 4–10 show practical values and linear attenuation coefficient (LAC) calculations for each sample, demonstrating that LAC increases with cement dust content due to elements (Fe₂O₃, Al₂O₃, SiO₂, MgO, CaO) that increase molecular weight and density. Table 1 [TABLE:1] shows variations between theoretical and experimental mass attenuation coefficients with energy and cement dust content. Results reveal good agreement between experimental and theoretical values, with photoelectric reactions dominating at low energies for all samples due to high-Z elements (Ba, Ca from cement dust), enhancing multiple photon scattering at medium energies and causing deviation in mass attenuation coefficient values. Tables 2 [TABLE:2] and 3 [TABLE:3] show HVL and MFP values, which decrease with increasing BCD content but increase with gamma-ray energy, confirming that cement dust addition improves shielding properties \cite{26-27}.

Radiation Protection Efficiency (RPE) is another critical parameter for evaluating shielding material effectiveness \cite{28-29}. Table 4 [TABLE:4] presents RPE values for the prepared glasses, which attenuate incident gamma radiation almost completely (76%) up to 81 keV. Sample 0 exhibited maximum RPE values of ~26%, 19%, and 16% at 662 keV, 1173 keV, and 1332 keV, respectively.

The removal cross-section describes the probability of first-collision removal of fast neutrons from the incident beam and is approximately constant for neutrons with energies between 2 and 12 MeV. Neutron removal cross-section values (∑R, cm⁻¹) for the glass matrix were calculated using elemental weight fractions and densities, with mass removal cross-sections (∑R/ρ, cm² g⁻¹) also determined. Results for each glass sample are shown in Table 5 [TABLE:5]. The prepared glasses possessed removal cross-section values ranging from 0.195–0.2148 cm⁻¹, demonstrating higher values than graphite and concrete \cite{30-31}.

4. Conclusion

This study demonstrates that adding cement kiln dust (0–20 wt.%) to borate-based glass improves both shielding and structural properties. FTIR analysis confirmed retention of an amorphous borate network with gradual structural reorganization. Replacement of B₂O₃ with heavier oxides from cement dust led to steady density increases, improving glass compactness. This densification enhanced gamma-ray attenuation, evidenced by higher linear attenuation coefficients and reduced HVL and MFP values. The glasses also demonstrated high radiation protection efficiency at low photon energies and favorable neutron removal cross-sections. Overall, the modified glasses show excellent potential for sustainable radiation shielding applications while promoting industrial waste reuse.

5. Novelty of Study

This research presents several novel contributions: (1) utilization of cement kiln dust (CKD) as a substitute for B₂O₃ in borate-based glass systems to enhance radiation shielding properties; (2) demonstration of improved structural compactness, increased density, and enhanced gamma-ray and neutron attenuation capabilities; and (3) promotion of sustainable recycling for hazardous industrial waste while advancing functional glass materials for radiation protection.

6. Suggested Applications

The developed glass system has multiple potential applications: (1) radiation shielding for nuclear facilities, including waste storage facilities and nuclear power plant walls, panels, or enclosures; (2) medical radiation protection as a transparent, lead-free shielding substitute in radiotherapy clinics and X-ray rooms; (3) construction in hazardous environments exposed to ionizing radiation; (4) protective viewing windows for observation panels requiring radiation attenuation while maintaining visibility; (5) personal and portable shielding tools adaptable to protective gear or mobile systems; and (6) sustainable industrial waste recycling, providing an environmentally friendly method to convert cement kiln dust into valuable glass products.

Ethics approval and consent to participate: The manuscript has not been published.
Consent to participate and publication: The authors consent to participate and publish.
Availability of data and material: Our manuscript and associated personal data.
Competing interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests.
Author contributions: All authors contributed equally to writing the main manuscript.
Funding statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgment: The authors are thankful to the Deanship of Scientific Research at Najran University for funding this work under the Research Groups Funding program grant code (NU/RG/SEHRC/XX/X).

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Table 1: Variation of experimental and theoretical mass attenuation coefficients of the studied glass samples with energy and cement dust content.

Table 2 [TABLE:2]: Theoretical and experimental half-value layer (HVL) values of studied glasses.

Table 3 [TABLE:3]: Mean free path (MFP) values of the studied glasses.

Table 4: Radiation Protection Efficiency (RPE) of Calcium–Barium–Borate Glass Using Cement Dust.

Table 5: Fast neutron removal cross-section of Calcium–Barium–Borate Glass Using Cement Dust.

Figure 1 [FIGURE:1]: Schematic diagram of narrow beam geometry.

Figure 2 [FIGURE:2]: FTIR spectra of the investigated glass system: 25 wt.% CaO + 15 wt.% BaO + (60-x) wt.% B₂O₃ + x wt.% cement dust, where x = 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20.

Figure 3 [FIGURE:3]: Experimental densities of the glass system: 25 wt.% CaO + 15 wt.% BaO + (60-x) wt.% B₂O₃ + x wt.% cement dust, where x = 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20.

Figure 4: Experimental linear attenuation coefficients of gamma-ray for the five energies, for the sample containing 0 mol% cement dust.

Figure 5: Experimental linear attenuation coefficients of gamma-ray for the five energies, for the sample containing 5 mol% BCD.

Figure 6: Experimental linear attenuation coefficients of gamma-ray for the five energies, for the sample containing 10 mol% BCD.

Figure 7: Experimental linear attenuation coefficients of gamma-ray for the five energies, for the sample containing 15 mol% BCD.

Figure 8: Experimental linear attenuation coefficients of gamma-ray for the five energies, for the sample containing 20 mol% BCD.

Figure 9: Linear attenuation coefficients as a function of BCD concentration.

Figure 10: Linear attenuation coefficients as a function of photon energy.