Preamble

Ethnobotanical Study on Forage Plants in Baiku Yao Communities of China

HU Renchuan¹, HU Qimin¹, NONG You¹, LUO Binsheng²*

¹Guangxi Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Quality Standards, Guangxi Institute of Chinese Medicine & Pharmaceutical Science, Nanning 530022, China
²Lushan Botanical Garden, Jiangxi Province and Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lushan 332900, Jiangxi, China

Abstract

The Baiku Yao people have a strong tradition of raising and consuming local black pigs, and possess unique and extensive experience in collecting and managing forage plants. This study aims to document the forage plants and related indigenous knowledge in Baiku Yao areas through ethnobotanical inventory, providing data support for preserving their traditional knowledge and insights for developing modern feed alternatives. From 2019 to 2021, we conducted multiple ethnobotanical investigations on forage plants in Baiku Yao regions using key informant interviews, semi-structured interviews, and group discussions. Additionally, we screened forage plants with high comprehensive utilization value through scoring, ranking, and statistical analysis of plant usage frequency. The results show: (1) A total of 104 traditional forage plant species were recorded, belonging to 85 genera and 42 families. The family with the most cited species was Asteraceae (16 species, accounting for 15.38% of the total), followed by Urticaceae (13 species, accounting for 12.5%). (2) Branches and leaves (56.73%), whole plants (26.92%), and leaves (8.65%) were the main utilized parts of local forage plants. Most forage plants were herbaceous (88.46%), and the majority could be collected year-round (64.42% of the total), ensuring adequate food sources for domestic pigs. The primary processing method was chopping (or crushing) followed by cooking. (3) The most frequently cited species by respondents were Zea mays, Broussonetia papyrifera, Ipomoea batatas, Morus alba, Fagopyrum dibotrys, and Oryza sativa. (4) According to comprehensive scoring and ranking, the forage plants with the highest evaluation were Broussonetia papyrifera, Ipomoea batatas, Morus alba, Fagopyrum dibotrys, and Cucurbita moschata. The Baiku Yao possess rich traditional knowledge about the utilization and management of forage plants for pig farming that is highly scientific and well-preserved, and the related forage plant resources warrant further development and promotion.

Keywords: Yao, Baiku Yao, forage plant, ethnobotany, traditional knowledge, animal husbandry

Introduction

China is a mountainous country with large populations residing in mountain regions. Due to topographical constraints, mountain residents cannot engage in large-scale mechanized farming, and thus many areas maintain traditional animal farming and animal husbandry to meet daily needs (Long et al. 2007). Although technological advances have led to widespread use of commercial animal feed, many communities still retain the tradition of using wild plant resources to feed livestock (Long et al., 2007). While collecting wild forage plants requires time investment, they are often nutrient-rich, environmentally friendly, and free from pesticide residues, gradually attracting increasing attention from scientists (Yang et al., 2021).

Forage plants refer to plants that can be consumed by livestock, poultry, and wild animals (Kahasbagan & Pei, 2000). Indigenous (local) communities involved in animal husbandry possess rich traditional knowledge about forage plants, which often provides important theoretical support for developing modern feed alternatives (Sadat-Hosseini et al., 2017). Internationally, numerous ethnobotanical studies on wild forage plants have been reported, such as research cases from Brazil and Pakistan (Nunes et al., 2015; Shaheen et al., 2020). In China, although some regional studies on wild forage plants have been published, few have evaluated their relative importance to local communities (Kahasbagan & Pei, 2000; Ma et al., 2019; Yang et al., 2021). Among them, Ma et al. (2019) described changes in traditional knowledge during ecological resettlement through investigations of wild forage plants, while Yang et al. (2021) conducted a survey of wild forage plants in Zhuxi County, Shiyan City, Hubei Province, using citation frequency to reflect plant importance to the community, representing a typical ethnobotanical case study.

The Yao people are a typical mountain-dwelling ethnic group, among whom the Baiku Yao constitute one branch. The Baiku Yao call themselves "Duo Niu" and are named for the white trousers traditionally worn by men. They are primarily distributed in Lihu Township and Baxu Township in Nandan County, Guangxi, and Yaoshan Township in Libo County, Guizhou. They have been recognized by UNESCO as an ethnic group with exceptionally well-preserved culture and are acclaimed as a "living fossil of human civilization" (Qiu, 2008). The Baiku Yao are considered to have transitioned directly from primitive social formations to modern society, thus retaining unique customs regarding marriage, funerals, diet, as well as rich ethnic dances, competitions, traditional clothing, and traditional medicine (Qiu, 2008). Current research on Baiku Yao has focused primarily on humanities and social sciences, with few scientific reports from the perspective of plant resource utilization.

The daily livelihood of Baiku Yao includes animal husbandry, with nearly every household raising livestock to supplement family income. As an ethnic group with rich traditional culture, the Baiku Yao have accumulated considerable traditional knowledge about animal husbandry. Local pig farming primarily consists of small-scale family operations to meet household meat consumption needs and generate supplementary income. The breed selection predominantly favors local traditional black pigs (Fig. 1). Among the households we surveyed, nearly 70% raised local black pigs. These pigs are small in stature, active, and produce delicious meat with a subtle fragrance, considered by the Baiku Yao as the finest among pigs. They have also observed that local black pigs have stronger disease resistance than common commercial white pigs. Based on our observations, local black pigs are mostly free-range, and we frequently encountered them running through village lanes during our surveys. Locals believe that allowing pigs sufficient exercise results in better-tasting meat and healthier animals. Additionally, most Baiku Yao insist on using traditional wild vegetables or planted coarse grains for feeding, avoiding commercial feed, which they believe generates excessive heat that pigs cannot digest, leading to illness.

Thus, the Baiku Yao possess unique understanding of black pig farming and excel at utilizing locally growing plant resources as feed. We therefore inferred that they have rich traditional knowledge about forage plants that could be applied to modern feed development. To (1) investigate and document traditional knowledge related to forage plants, and (2) evaluate and screen forage plants with good development potential, we conducted multiple ethnobotanical surveys in Baiku Yao areas between 2019 and 2021.

Fig. 1 Black pigs in Baiku Yao village

1.1 Study Sites

Based on preliminary literature review, combined with initial survey results and recommendations from Baiku Yao Ethnic Museum staff, we selected Huaili Village, Dongjia Village, and Yaoli Village in Lihu Yao Ethnic Township, Nandan County, Guangxi; Yaozhai Village, Lile Village, and Guanxi Village in Baxu Township, Nandan County; and Yaoshan Village in Yaoshan Township, Libo County, Guizhou as study sites (Fig. 2). These selected sites represent major Baiku Yao residential areas with well-preserved traditional culture, facilitating data collection. Between 2019 and 2021, we conducted six surveys in Baiku Yao villages across four different seasons.

Fig. 2 Study area

1.1.1 Literature Review and Analysis

We collected and compiled relevant materials on Baiku Yao research, including published academic papers, local chronicles, and folk manuscripts, to understand Baiku Yao cultural characteristics, customs, ethnic features, distribution, and traditional knowledge related to plant utilization, establishing a foundational knowledge framework for this study.

1.1.2 Selection of Survey Sites and Informants

To understand overall forage plant usage among Baiku Yao residents, we employed simple random sampling to survey villagers in the study sites (Luo et al., 2019). Simultaneously, we used purposive and snowball sampling to select key individuals within target villages, including elderly people with rich traditional knowledge, traditional veterinarians, and village officials, for further in-depth interviews (Yang et al., 2021).

1.1.3 Ethnobotanical Interviews

For general interviewees and key informants selected through sampling methods, we conducted interviews using a combination of semi-structured and informal conversational approaches (Martin, 2010). The interviews primarily covered local names, usage methods, utilized parts, usage frequency, collection sources, and collection seasons of forage plants used by Baiku Yao. This study interviewed a total of 185 informants, including 87 males and 98 females, among whom 43 were selected as key informants.

We also organized key informants for group discussions and applied the grading and ranking (GR) method (Chambers, 1994) to quantitatively score forage plants across four aspects: nutritional value, pig preference, collection difficulty, and processing difficulty. Each indicator was scored on a scale of 1 to 5 points. For example, for nutritional value: excellent = 5 points, good = 4 points, fair = 3 points, average = 2 points, poor = 1 point. The total score was used to evaluate forage plant quality. Plants with the highest scores indicated the best quality and high potential development value.

1.1.4 Data Analysis

The degree of utilization of different plants by local people is quantitatively important for exploring their adaptive strategies to the surrounding environment and their utilization of plant resources (Huai & Pei, 2003). For example, Ladio & Lozada (2001) used the concept of plant utilization frequency to study non-timber forest product use in two communities in northwestern Patagonia. In that case, plant utilization frequency was defined as f = Nm/Ni, where f is the utilization frequency of a particular plant, Nm is the number of informants who mentioned the plant, and Ni is the total number of informants. A higher f value indicates higher utilization frequency (Ladio & Lozada, 2001). Similarly, this study applied this indicator to evaluate Baiku Yao forage plants.

2.1 Statistical Analysis of Baiku Yao Forage Plants

This study recorded a total of 104 forage plant species used for domestic pigs in Baiku Yao communities (Table 1). Analysis of family composition (Table 2) revealed that Baiku Yao pig forage plants included 6 multiple-species families (containing ≥5 species), accounting for 14.29% of total families and 49.04% of total species (51 species); 14 oligotypic families (containing 2–4 species), accounting for 33.33% of families and 29.81% of species (31 species); and 22 monotypic families (containing 1 species), accounting for 52.38% of families and 21.15% of species (22 species). Genus-level statistical analysis (Table 1) showed that Baiku Yao pig forage plants consisted only of oligotypic genera (14 genera, 33 species) and monotypic genera (71 genera, 71 species). Baiku Yao domestic pig forage plant species were concentrated at the family level in a few multiple-species families such as Asteraceae (16 species) and Urticaceae (13 species), while being dispersed among oligotypic and monotypic genera at the genus level (Table 2), demonstrating high taxonomic diversity.

In terms of plant life form, forage plants were predominantly herbaceous (88.46% of the total), followed by shrubs (9.62%) and trees (1.92%).

Statistical analysis revealed that Baiku Yao processing methods for these forage plants were relatively uniform, mainly consisting of two approaches (Table 1): chopping (or crushing) followed by cooking, or fresh feeding. Chopping or crushing forage plants facilitates consumption by black pigs and increases palatability. Some forage plants require cooking, which not only softens texture for better palatability and digestibility but also helps remove mild toxins and special odors.

The utilized parts of Baiku Yao forage plants were highly diverse, including branches and leaves, whole plants, leaves, seeds, husks, fruits, infructescences, stems, and flowers. Notably, roots were not utilized, ensuring plant survival and demonstrating sustainability (Fig. 3). Among these, branches and leaves (56.73%), whole plants (26.92%), and leaves (8.65%) were the main utilized parts, accounting for 92.3% of recorded plants. The utilized parts were typically young and tender, such as tender leaves and young branches, to enhance palatability. Locals also used rice and millet husks after threshing as feed to increase dietary fiber content. Additionally, multiple parts of some plants could be used as feed, demonstrating high utilization efficiency. For example, both leaves and infructescences of Boehmeria nivea and Debregeasia longifolia, as well as seeds and tender leaves of Coix lacryma-jobi and Zea mays, could all serve as feed.

Fig. 3 Used parts of Baiku Yao forage plants for swine

Wild plants used for feeding black pigs by Baiku Yao were generally available year-round, ensuring adequate feed supply, though some plants had seasonal collection patterns. Most forage plants could be collected throughout the year (64.42% of the total) (Fig. 4). The remaining forage plants were primarily collected in summer and autumn, accounting for 28.85% and 30.77% of the total, respectively, while spring and winter collections were minimal (3.85% each). During our surveys, we observed that locals also leveraged seasonal changes to optimize collection timing for improved palatability and utilization efficiency. For instance, they consistently collected forage plants according to plant growth cycles, typically gathering young, tender parts during peak growing seasons to enhance palatability.

Fig. 4 Collection time of Baiku Yao forage plants for swine

Forage plants used for feeding black pigs in Baiku Yao areas typically included both wild and cultivated plants. According to our investigation, locals cultivated some easily grown and nutritionally valuable forage plants in home gardens or vacant spaces around houses for convenient pig feeding. Among the recorded forage plants, most were wild (77.88% of the total), while 20.19% were cultivated. Two species were both wild-collected and locally cultivated: Asystasia chelonoides and Broussonetia papyrifera. While no reports exist on A. chelonoides as feed or its nutritional composition, B. papyrifera, a deciduous tree widely distributed across China, contains 18–24% crude protein and has proven to be a highly promising unconventional feed resource (Tan et al., 2017).

2.2 Utilization Frequency and Grading/Ranking

Table 1 shows the utilization frequency (f) of 104 cited species, reflecting local familiarity with these plants. Baiku Yao forage plant f values ranged from 0.04 to 1.00, with 46 species having f values above 0.38 (the average f value) and 58 species below the average. The most frequently cited species were Zea mays (f = 1.00), Broussonetia papyrifera (f = 0.97), Ipomoea batatas (f = 0.97), Morus alba (f = 0.93), Fagopyrum dibotrys (f = 0.83), and Oryza sativa (f = 0.81). These forage plants are all common locally cultivated species that are easily accessible, convenient to use, and nutritionally valuable, thus exhibiting very high utilization frequency and indicating their important role in the local livestock system. As shown in Table 1, cultivated plants generally had relatively high utilization frequency.

We organized key informants for group discussions and grading/ranking of Baiku Yao forage plants, quantitatively scoring nutritional value, pig preference, collection difficulty, and processing difficulty, then ranking plants by total score (GR value). Baiku Yao forage plant GR values ranged from 6 to 20 points (maximum). The top five plants with highest GR values were Broussonetia papyrifera (GR = 20), Ipomoea batatas (GR = 19), Morus alba (GR = 19), Fagopyrum dibotrys (GR = 18), and Cucurbita moschata (GR = 18), indicating these five forage plants have high local utilization value. Additionally, the top-ranked plants with high GR values were all cultivated species. Among them, Broussonetia papyrifera, Ipomoea batatas, Morus alba, and Fagopyrum dibotrys simultaneously exhibited high comprehensive utilization value and high utilization frequency, demonstrating their excellent potential as local forage plants.

3.1 "Forest-Farmland-Garden" Sustainable Model

The Baiku Yao are a typical mountain-dwelling ethnic group with limited arable land, primarily cultivating corn, sweet potatoes, and rice (with rice mostly purchased). Corn and sweet potatoes are favored by Baiku Yao due to their drought tolerance, high yield, strong adaptability, and high nutritional value, meeting both daily needs and providing nutritional supplements for livestock. Baiku Yao women have long maintained the tradition of sericulture, with silk being essential for traditional clothing. Mulberry leaves, being nutritionally valuable, are used to feed livestock in addition to silkworms. Furthermore, Baiku Yao fully utilize limited land by cultivating Broussonetia papyrifera, Fagopyrum dibotrys, and other plants suitable for local conditions with high yield and nutritional value as supplements for pig feed. Combined with wild forage plant collection, this ensures adequate daily nutrition for domestic pigs. Consequently, Broussonetia papyrifera, Ipomoea batatas, Morus alba, and Fagopyrum dibotrys exhibit both high usage frequency and high GR values, making them highly preferred by Baiku Yao. These plants not only pose no threat to human staple foods but also offer high nutritional value and low environmental requirements.

Sustainable livestock production typically involves effective utilization of locally available resources, particularly feed resources. Understanding the importance of wild forage plants is crucial for effective forest resource utilization. Our results indicate that locals prefer cultivated plants as primary pig feed, consistent with our field observations. This approach not only enhances overall space and land utilization efficiency but also improves utilization of cultivated crops. Collecting wild plants for pig feed supplements feed sources while providing potential health benefits. This integrated "forest-farmland-garden" model fully demonstrates local management wisdom in smallholder systems. Such system integration can mitigate increasing pressure on land and forest resources from expanding agricultural and pastoral demands. The combination of traditional and scientific knowledge has proven effective in optimizing selection of useful forage plants. Therefore, documentation of forage plants, laboratory evaluation of wild forage plants, and their rational application are all significant and worthy of vigorous promotion.

3.2 Current Status and Conservation of Baiku Yao Forage Plant Traditional Knowledge

Farmers have altered their attitudes and management methods toward pig farming in response to increasingly strict regulations and socio-economic development. These production changes have been accompanied by major shifts in feeding practices, with modern feeding modes using less green forage. Traditional wild forage plants have been replaced by nutritional concentrates and other readily available cultivated plants (such as sweet potatoes, cabbage, mustard, and radishes). Wild forage plant collection has become less necessary, leading to gradual erosion of traditional knowledge about forage plant utilization and management. Yang et al.'s (2021) study in Zhuxi County reflected that only a small portion of elderly villagers occasionally used wild forage plants for pigs. As the number of small-scale pig farmers decreases and younger generations abandon traditional feeding methods, local traditional knowledge about wild forage plant utilization and management faces significant risk of disappearance (Yang et al., 2021).

Our study found that Baiku Yao areas are rich in wild forage resources, and local people have accumulated extensive traditional knowledge about forage plant utilization and management. However, unlike Yang et al.'s (2021) case, we still observed numerous Baiku Yao villagers continuing traditional practices of forage plant collection and management. The likely reason is that locals have consistently preferred local black pig breeds and insist that only free-range black pigs fed natural forage produce more delicious and healthier meat. This traditional culture is probably key to the well-preserved state of related forage plant knowledge. In contrast, we observed that surrounding Zhuang and Han villages used modern methods to raise white pigs, which although more productive, had relatively weaker immunity, and traditional knowledge about using wild plants as feed was more severely eroded. This demonstrates that traditional breeds and germplasm resources may be important factors in maintaining the stability of local traditional knowledge networks. Future efforts in rescuing and preserving traditional knowledge should focus on traditional breeds (including animal and plant varieties) and germplasm resources of local communities.

3.3 Functional Development and Research of Forage Plants

Although this study revealed local preference for cultivated forage plants through utilization frequency and comprehensive scoring, wild forage plants also serve as valuable supplements. Many wild forage plants possess excellent development potential, with locals rating many species as having good nutritional value (scoring high in nutritional value within GR values). Currently, few scientific studies have reported on these plants, and some are unrelated to animal husbandry. With rapid development of the livestock industry and high demand for green feed, scientific validation, development, domestication, and cultivation of these wild forage plants are of great significance. Our plant inventory can provide a theoretical foundation for such research. China currently lacks comprehensive surveys of wild forage plants, and more researchers should be encouraged to engage in this field.

Baiku Yao areas have abundant wild forage plant resources. During our interviews, we discovered that many forage plants have additional local uses. Among the recorded forage plants, over 50% were used for other purposes, primarily medicinal and food uses. For example, the whole plant of Lobelia angulata is boiled for oral administration to treat stones and mashed for external application to treat shingles. Locally, Artemisia lactiflora is consumed as a wild vegetable. Some forage plants also serve as veterinary medicines; for instance, Polygonum nepalense can be used to treat swine fever and internal heat in pigs. These additional uses of forage plants fully demonstrate local wisdom in plant resource utilization and reflect the dietary supplementation and health promotion effects of these wild forage plants for livestock, warranting further analysis and promotion through different disciplinary approaches.

Conclusion

This study, using Baiku Yao areas in China as an example, investigated traditional knowledge about pig forage plant resources among local residents. We recorded 104 forage plant species along with information on local names, life forms, utilized parts, collection seasons, and processing methods. Through statistical analysis of utilization frequency and group discussion-based grading/ranking of Baiku Yao pig forage plants, we identified plants with high comprehensive utilization value. Our analysis suggests that the local "forest-farmland-garden" resource utilization model is not only efficient but also sustainable. Local preference for native black pig breeds and adherence to traditional farming methods are key to the well-preserved state of related forage plant knowledge. The recorded forage plants demonstrate development potential. Overall, traditional knowledge about local pig forage plants is well-preserved, with scientific collection and management practices, and the related forage plant resources warrant further research and development.

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Table 1 Inventory of Baiku Yao forage plants for swine

Family Vernacular name Scientific name Collection resource Collection time Used part Preparation Voucher Musaceae wo sao Musa basjoo Cultivated Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC732 Plantaginaceae wo dao mu Plantago asiatica Cultivated Whole year Whole plant Smash and cook thoroughly HRC858 Dipsacaceae wo pi cuo Dipsacus asper Cultivated Summer and Autumn Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC859 Lamiaceae qi lin cao Ajuga decumbens Cultivated Summer and Autumn Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC190 Euphorbiaceae 裂苞铁苋 Acalypha australis Cultivated Summer and Autumn Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC823 Euphorbiaceae — A. supera Cultivated Whole year Seed Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC965 Cannabinaceae da bo wa Cannabis sativa Cultivated Winter Seed and tender leaf Smash and cook thoroughly HRC86 Fabaceae ai jie Glycine max Cultivated Whole year Tender branch and leaf Smash and cook thoroughly HRC341 Poaceae — Coix lacryma-jobi Cultivated Summer and Autumn Seed Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC283 Poaceae — Oryza sativa Cultivated Whole year Husk and tender leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC648 Poaceae — Pennisetum purpureum Cultivated Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC835 Poaceae — Setaria italica Cultivated Whole year Seed Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC340 Poaceae — Sorghum bicolor Cultivated Whole year Seed Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC948 Poaceae — Zea mays Cultivated Whole year Seed and tender leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC339 Cucurbitaceae — Cucurbita moschata Cultivated Summer and Autumn Fruit Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC951 Cucurbitaceae — Gynostemma pentaphyllum Cultivated Summer and Autumn Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC125 Violaceae — Viola diffusa Shrub Whole year Whole plant Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC452 Violaceae — V. japonica Shrub Whole year Whole plant Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC71 Violaceae zu jiao bo V. philippica Shrub Summer and Autumn Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC593 Malvaceae wo wai Hibiscus syriacus Shrub Summer and Autumn Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC950 Campanulaceae ya nong die Lobelia angulata Shrub Summer and Autumn Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC302 Asteraceae wo ho Artemisia argyi Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC848 Asteraceae wa huo A. indica Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC877 Asteraceae — A. lactiflora Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC857 Asteraceae ya bu sai Aster ageratoides Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC852 Asteraceae 白花鬼针 Bidens alba Cultivated or wild Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC821 Asteraceae wo zong B. tripartita Cultivated or wild Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC962 Asteraceae wo suan gao Crassocephalum crepidioides — Summer and Autumn Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC824 Asteraceae 黄瓜假还 Crepidiastrum denticulatum — Summer and Autumn Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC909 Asteraceae 粗毛牛膝 Emilia sonchifolia — Summer and Autumn Whole plant Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC304 Asteraceae — Galinsoga quadriradiata — Summer and Autumn Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC953 Asteraceae — Gynura japonica — Summer and Autumn Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC328 Asteraceae — Ixeris polycephala — Summer and Autumn Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC119 Asteraceae ji lu Siegesbeckia orientalis — Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC838 Asteraceae — S. pubescens — Summer and Autumn Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC883 Asteraceae wo niao sao Synedrella nodiflora — Summer and Autumn Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC820 Asteraceae — Youngia japonica — Summer and Autumn Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC960 Acanthaceae — Asystasia chelonoides — Whole year Whole plant Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC316 Acanthaceae — Dicliptera chinensis — Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC89 Acanthaceae wo jia hu Justicia patentiflora — Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC849 Acanthaceae 九头狮子 Peristrophe japonica — Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC959 Acanthaceae — Strobilanthes dimorphotricha — Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC822 Gesneriaceae — Chirita tribracteata Cultivated Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC138 Chenopodiaceae wo weng Chenopodium album Cultivated Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC82 Polygonaceae ya ce Fagopyrum dibotrys Cultivated Whole year Tuber Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC781 Polygonaceae wo niao re Polygonum aviculare Cultivated Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC916 Polygonaceae 尼泊尔蓼 P. nepalense Cultivated Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC148 Polygonaceae wo niu P. plebeium Cultivated Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC969 Polygonaceae wan de mu Rumex japonicus Cultivated Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC831 Polygonaceae — R. nepalensis Cultivated Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC91 Basellaceae — Anredera cordifolia Cultivated Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC111 Portulacaceae — Talinum paniculatum Cultivated Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC850 Cannaceae — Canna edulis Cultivated Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC973 Cannaceae — C. indica Cultivated Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC826 Vitaceae 白毛乌蔹 Cayratia albifolia Cultivated Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC827 Vitaceae chou teng C. japonica Cultivated Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC830 Vitaceae ya ba jie Parthenocissus suberosa Cultivated Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC971 Rubiaceae shi tao teng Paederia scandens Cultivated Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC974 Rubiaceae ge ba Rubia alata Cultivated Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC954 Solanaceae — Lycium chinense Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC955 Solanaceae 少花龙葵 Solanum americanum Cultivated Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC961 Solanaceae wo guo — Cultivated Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC828 Begoniaceae — Begonia grandis Cultivated Fall and winter Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC964 Saururaceae wo za Houttuynia cordata Cultivated Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC834 Apiaceae wo duo wu Cryptotaenia japonica Cultivated Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC963 Apiaceae — Oenanthe javanica Cultivated Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC947 Moraceae — Broussonetia papyrifera Cultivated or wild Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC829 Moraceae wo jie Morus alba Cultivated Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC972 Phytolaccaceae zu ziong Phytolacca acinosa Shrub Summer and Autumn Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC854 Brassicaceae 聚锥水东 Capsella bursapastoris Shrub Summer and Autumn Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC851 Brassicaceae wo bie ya Cardamine hirsuta Shrub Summer and Autumn Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC959 Caryophyllaceae gei a niang Myosoton aquaticum Shrub Summer and Autumn Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC822 Caryophyllaceae — Stellaria media Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC138 Saurauiaceae — Saurauia thyrsiflora Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC82 Araceae — Colocasia gigantea Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC178 Cactaceae — Hylocereus undatus Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC949 Amaranthaceae — Achyranthes longifolia Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC831 Amaranthaceae — Alternanthera sessilis Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC91 Amaranthaceae — Amaranthus spinosus Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC111 Amaranthaceae wo niu A. tricolor Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC850 Amaranthaceae wo niong Celosia argentea Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC973 Convolvulaceae — Dinetus racemosus Shrub Summer and Autumn Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC826 Convolvulaceae — Hewittia malabarica Shrub Summer and Autumn Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC827 Convolvulaceae yan du Ipomoea batatas Cultivated Whole year Tuber Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC830 Urticaceae 序叶苎麻 Boehmeria clidemioides Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC971 Urticaceae 长序苎麻 B. dolichostachya Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC974 Urticaceae wo gu B. nivea Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf and infructescence Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC954 Urticaceae wo gu biao B. tricuspis Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf and infructescence Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC955 Urticaceae 长叶水麻 Debregeasia longifolia Shrub Whole year Branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC961 Urticaceae — Elatostema involucratum Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC828 Urticaceae — Gonostegia hirta Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC964 Urticaceae — Oreocnide frutescens Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC834 Urticaceae 广西紫麻 O. kwangsiensis Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC963 Urticaceae wo on Pellionia radicans Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC947 Urticaceae wo zong jie Pilea plataniflora Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC829 Urticaceae wo on ya P. pumila Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC972 Urticaceae 红雾水葛 Pouzolzia sanguinea Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC844 Commelinaceae — Commelina benghalensis Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC845 Commelinaceae — C. diffusa Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC851 Commelinaceae li hong Murdannia triquetra Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC959 Melastomataceae — Melastoma dodecandrum Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC822 Melastomataceae — Oxyspora paniculata Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC138 Papaveraceae huang Corydalis balansae Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC82 Boraginaceae — Cynoglossum furcatum Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC781 Nyctaginaceae wo bai bai Mirabilis jalapa Shrub Whole year Tender branch and leaf Cut up and cook thoroughly or feed freshly HRC916

Notes: Family name, plant name, and scientific name are based on the Flora of China in http://www.iplant.cn/. The order is in alphabetical order of family name, and secondarily in alphabetical order of scientific name. "—" indicates missing data.

Table 2 Taxonomic composition of Baiku Yao forage plants for swine

Category Number of families Percentage of total families (%) Number of species Percentage of total species (%) Multiple-species families (≥5 species) 6 14.29 51 49.04 Oligotypic families (2–4 species) 14 33.33 31 29.81 Monotypic families (1 species) 22 52.38 22 21.15 Total 42 100 104 100